Table 3.
Multivariable linear regression models for the association between potential predictors and serum concentrations of PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS in the entire study population ( subjects with complete records for all variables).
Predictor | (%) | % difference (95% CI) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
PFOA | PFOS | PFHxS | ||
Gender | ||||
Female | 8,892 (49.1) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
Male | 9,230 (50.9) | 66 (61; 71) | 42 (39; 45) | 93 (88; 98) |
Explained variance (%) | 11.52 | 9.94 | 18.17 | |
Age (y) | ||||
14–19 | 4,478 (24.7) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
20–24 | 3,194 (17.6) | (; ) | (; 3) | (; 4) |
25–29 | 3,044 (16.8) | (; ) | 2 (; 7) | 10 (3; 16) |
30–34 | 3,304 (18.2) | (; ) | 8 (3; 14) | 14 (6; 21) |
35–39 | 4,102 (22.6) | (; 3) | 20 (14; 26) | 30 (21; 39) |
Explained variance (%) | 2.96 | 0.13 | 0.74 | |
Country of birth | ||||
Italian, HDC | 16,696 (92.1) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
HMPC | 1,426 (7.9) | (; ) | — | — |
Explained variance (%) | 1.25 | — | — | |
Educational level | ||||
Primary/Middle school | 5,853 (32.3) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
High school | 9,012 (49.7) | (; 0) | 1 (; 3) | (; 0) |
University | 3,257 (18.0) | 2 (; 8) | 6 (3; 9) | 0 (; 4) |
Explained variance (%) | 0.33 | 0.33 | 0.26 | |
Occupational sector | ||||
No farmer | 17,903 (98.8) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
Farmer | 219 (1.2) | — | 8 (0; 16) | — |
Explained variance (%) | — | 0.02 | — | |
Predominant residential area | ||||
Red Area A | 7,020 (38.7) | 38 (27; 50) | 5 (0; 10) | 42 (33; 51) |
Red Area B | 11,102 (61.3) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
Explained variance (%) | 0.20 | 0.01 | 0.30 | |
Current municipality of residency (Red Area A or B) | ||||
Terrazzo (B) | 288 (1.6) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
Albaredo D’Adige (B) | 767 (4.2) | 160 (131; 194) | 14 (6; 23) | 126 (104; 150) |
Arcole (B) | 899 (5.0) | 189 (156; 226) | 25 (16; 34) | 135 (113; 159) |
Bevilacqua (B) | 216 (1.2) | 342 (278; 416) | 41 (28; 55) | 268 (224; 319) |
Bonavigo (B) | 279 (1.5) | 170 (133; 213) | 16 (6; 27) | 137 (110; 168) |
Boschi Sant’Anna (B) | 206 (1.1) | 202 (158; 254) | 22 (11; 35) | 155 (124; 191) |
Legnago (B) | 2,945 (16.3) | 87 (68; 109) | 7 (0; 14) | 59 (45; 74) |
Minerbe (B) | 628 (3.5) | 325 (276; 381) | 32 (23; 43) | 241 (208; 278) |
Veronella (B) | 778 (4.3) | 340 (289; 397) | 35 (25; 46) | 248 (215; 285) |
Alonte (A) | 346 (1.9) | 236 (186; 296) | 38 (25; 52) | 168 (134; 207) |
Asigliano Veneto (A) | 161 (0.9) | 275 (210; 353) | 34 (19; 50) | 198 (155; 249) |
Brendola (A) | 1,007 (5.6) | 125 (95; 160) | 21 (11; 32) | 31 (16; 47) |
Cologna Veneta (A) | 1,208 (6.7) | 243 (199; 294) | 35 (24; 47) | 183 (153; 217) |
Lonigo (A) | 2,569 (14.2) | 252 (206; 303) | 42 (31; 55) | 173 (144; 206) |
Montagnana (A) | 1,146 (6.3) | 264 (216; 318) | 40 (29; 53) | 184 (153; 219) |
Noventa Vicentina (A) | 1,410 (7.8) | 166 (132; 206) | 22 (12; 33) | 101 (79; 126) |
Pojana Maggiore (A) | 767 (4.2) | 263 (214; 320) | 33 (22; 46) | 180 (148; 216) |
Pressana (A) | 365 (2.0) | 272 (218; 336) | 29 (17; 42) | 192 (156; 232) |
Roveredo Di Gua’ (A) | 263 (1.4) | 243 (190; 306) | 25 (13; 39) | 178 (142; 219) |
Sarego (A) | 1,124 (6.2) | 197 (157; 242) | 46 (34; 59) | 118 (94; 146) |
Zimella (A) | 750 (4.1) | 236 (192; 288) | 40 (28; 52) | 170 (140; 204) |
Explained variance (%) | 12.57 | 6.70 | 14.84 | |
Duration of residency in the Red Area (y) | ||||
1,082 (6.0) | Referent | Referent | Referent | |
5–9 | 1,375 (7.6) | 45 (35; 56) | 8 (3; 13) | 27 (20; 35) |
10–14 | 3,962 (21.9) | 97 (83; 111) | 17 (12; 22) | 68 (59; 79) |
15–19 | 3,380 (18.6) | 120 (104; 137) | 21 (16; 27) | 98 (86; 111) |
20–24 | 2,887 (15.9) | 120 (104; 137) | 26 (20; 31) | 111 (98; 124) |
25–29 | 2,663 (14.7) | 131 (115; 148) | 24 (19; 29) | 125 (113; 138) |
more than 30 years | 2,773 (15.3) | 117 (102; 132) | 17 (12; 22) | 117 (105; 130) |
Explained variance (%) | 3.40 | 0.91 | 5.34 | |
Time-lag between the beginning of the study and blood sampling (months) | ||||
Less than 6 months | 2,221 (12.3) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
6–10 | 5,152 (28.4) | 6 (0; 12) | (; ) | 13 (8; 18) |
11–15 | 5,283 (29.2) | 0 (; 7) | (; ) | 5 (; 11) |
16–20 | 4,156 (22.9) | (; ) | (; ) | (; 3) |
1,310 (7.2) | (; ) | (; ) | (; ) | |
Explained variance (%) | 0.43 | 0.62 | 0.42 | |
BMI (kg/m2) | ||||
Underweight | 1,437 (7.9) | — | 0 (; 3) | (; 0) |
Normal weight | 11,388 (62.9) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
Pre-obesity | 3,895 (21.5) | — | (; ) | 3 (0; 6) |
Obesity | 1,402 (7.7) | — | (; ) | 5 (1; 9) |
Explained variance (%) | — | 0.53 | 0.06 | |
eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2) | ||||
15,691 (86.6) | Referent | Referent | Referent | |
2,431 (13.4) | 5 (1; 10) | 6 (3; 8) | 5 (1; 8) | |
Explained variance (%) | 0.09 | 0.13 | 0.09 | |
Number of deliveries | ||||
0 | 15,490 (85.5) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
1 | 1,100 (6.1) | (; ) | (; ) | (; ) |
2 | 1,213 (6.7) | (; ) | (; ) | (; ) |
319 (1.7) | (; ) | (; ) | (; ) | |
Explained variance (%) | 3.42 | 1.15 | 2.19 | |
Smoking habit | ||||
Never | 11,364 (62.7) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
Current | 4,775 (26.4) | 1 (; 5) | (; ) | 2 (; 4) |
Former | 1,983 (10.9) | (; ) | (; ) | (; 1) |
Explained variance (%) | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.06 | |
Alcohol intake (AU per week) | ||||
Never | 5,525 (30.5) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
7,438 (41.1) | 2 (; 5) | 5 (3; 7) | (; 2) | |
3–6 | 3,232 (17.8) | 8 (3; 13) | 7 (4; 9) | 3 (; 7) |
1,927 (10.6) | 13 (7; 19) | 11 (7; 14) | 8 (3; 12) | |
Explained variance (%) | 0.47 | 0.44 | 0.29 | |
Water intake (L/d) | ||||
Less than 1 | 1,739 (9.6) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
1–1.5 | 5,037 (27.8) | — | (; 0) | — |
1.5–2 | 9,463 (52.2) | — | (; ) | — |
1,883 (10.4) | — | (; ) | — | |
Explained variance (%) | — | 0.41 | — | |
Milk/Yogurt intake | ||||
I quartile | 5,292 (29.2) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
II quartile | 3,985 (22.0) | (; 2) | 0 (; 3) | (; 0) |
III quartile | 7,176 (39.6) | (; 0) | (; 1) | (; 1) |
IV quartile | 1,669 (9.2) | (; ) | (; ) | (; ) |
Explained variance (%) | 0.14 | 0.19 | 0.09 | |
Cheese intake | ||||
I quartile | 5,433 (30.0) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
II quartile | 4,574 (25.2) | — | 0 (; 2) | — |
III quartile | 4,610 (25.4) | — | 0 (; 2) | — |
IV quartile | 3,505 (19.4) | — | (; ) | — |
Explained variance (%) | — | 0.05 | — | |
Meat intake | ||||
I quartile | 6,867 (37.9) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
II quartile | 3,051 (16.8) | (; ) | 2 (; 4) | (; ) |
III quartile | 6,813 (37.6) | (; ) | 2 (0; 4) | (; 0) |
IV quartile | 1,391 (7.7) | (; ) | (; 0) | (; ) |
Explained variance (%) | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.09 | |
Fish intake | ||||
I tertile | 10,998 (60.7) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
II tertile | 4,725 (26.1) | (; ) | 4 (3; 6) | — |
III tertile | 2,399 (13.2) | (; 2) | 9 (6; 11) | — |
Explained variance (%) | 0.02 | 0.22 | — | |
Eggs intake | ||||
I quartile | 5,211 (28.8) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
II quartile | 7,701 (42.5) | — | 9 (7; 11) | — |
III quartile | 3,545 (19.5) | — | 9 (6; 12) | — |
IV quartile | 1,665 (9.2) | — | 13 (10; 17) | — |
Explained variance (%) | — | 0.35 | — | |
Sweets/snacks/sweet beverages intake | ||||
I quartile | 6,340 (35.0) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
II quartile | 4,936 (27.2) | (; 3) | (; 0) | (; 0) |
III quartile | 4,555 (25.2) | (; 1) | (; 1) | (; ) |
IV quartile | 2,291 (12.6) | (; ) | (; ) | (; ) |
Explained variance (%) | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.06 | |
Bread/pasta/cereals intake | ||||
I tertile | 7,497 (41.4) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
II tertile | 7,880 (43.5) | 2 (; 6) | — | 1 (; 5) |
III tertile | 2,745 (15.1) | 8 (3; 14) | — | 7 (3; 12) |
Explained variance (%) | 0.02 | — | 0.02 | |
Fruit/vegetables intake | ||||
I tertile | 5,435 (30.0) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
II tertile | 5,738 (31.7) | 0 (; 4) | 6 (4; 9) | 3 (0; 6) |
III tertile | 3,776 (20.8) | 4 (0; 8) | 7 (4; 9) | 6 (3; 10) |
IV tertile | 3,173 (17.5) | 4 (0; 9) | 8 (5; 11) | 7 (4; 11) |
Explained variance (%) | 0.02 | 0.23 | 0.08 | |
Growing vegetables for personal consumption | ||||
No | 8,891 (49,1) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
Yes | 9,231 (50.9) | 3 (0; 6) | 10 (8; 12) | 3 (1; 6) |
Explained variance (%) | 0.33 | 2.52 | 0.73 | |
Raising animals for personal consumption | ||||
No | 14,334 (79.1) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
Yes | 3,788 (20.9) | (; ) | 24 (21; 26) | — |
Explained variance (%) | 0.05 | 1.19 | — | |
Total variance explained (%) | 37.44 | 22.61 | 43.10 |
Note: Red Area: the area of the Veneto Region including municipalities supplied by PFAS contaminated waterworks. Red Area A: part of Red Area whose municipalities are located on the groundwater contamination plume. Red Area B: part of Red Area whose municipalities are located outside the groundwater contamination plume. HDC were defined as not Central–Eastern Europe, North America, Oceania, Israel and Japan. HMPC were defined as Central-Eastern Europe, North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, Asia except Israel and Japan, and Central and South America countries. Duration of residency in the Red Area was calculated as the number of years spent in the Red Area between 1980 and 2013 (when granular activated carbon filters were installed). Intake of food items was categorized based on quartiles or tertiles. Predictors shown for each PFAS were selected using a stepwise approach based on the Akaike information criterion (AIC). Values of % difference were derived from beta coefficients. —, no data. AU, alcohol units; BMI, body mass index; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; HDC, highly developed countries; HMPC, high migratory pressure countries; PFHxS, perfluorohexanesulfonic acid; PFOA, perfluorooctanoic acid; PFOS, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid.