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. 2020 Mar 4;11:401. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00401

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Copyright © 2020 Hoogeveen and Boonstra.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Immunotherapeutic options to reinvigorate defective HBV-specific T cells. Therapeutic vaccines consist of, or express, HBV antigens. Processing of these antigens by professional antigen presenting cells (APC) can prime new, and reactivate pre-existing, HBV-specific T cells (left panel). Immune checkpoint inhibitors: monoclonal antibodies that prevent the interaction between programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) and its ligand, and boost the function of HBV-specific T cells (right panel).