Table 1. Care of newborn calves.

Partici- pant	Colostrum taken for house?	How much taken? (litres)	Colostrum routine	Clean calf?	Navel care	Rice straw in mouth?	Comments by farmer (respondent’s gender M/F, age, and relationship)
1	Yes	0.5–1	After placenta falls (1–2 hours), milk off the colostrum, then the calf drinks			yes	Cow not milked again until calf 7 days old. (M, 45)
2	Yes	0.5–1	After milking the colostrum, then put the calf on the teat	yes	Wash with mustard oil for 5–6 days and remove flies. HimaxTM applied if flies come.		Next milking 15 days (M, 49 + F, 44? Husband and wife)
3	Yes	1	Take 70% of the colostrum, then allow the calf to drink	yes		yes	Check movement of tongue. Cut tips off hooves. Next milking 7 days, cow and calf together at all times until then. (F, 30 + F 55? Daughter and mother)
4	Yes	0.5–1	Yellow colour faded in milk before the calf drinks.	yes		yes	Yellow colour faded in milk before calf drinks. Start fire to warm calf if born in winter. Next milking 5–6 days, cow and calf together at all times until then. (M, 27)
5	Yes	1	Milk all four teats (for colostrum), leave one third of colostrum for calf				Clean calf. Make fire to warm calf in winter. Help to stand. Next milking 5–6 days, cow and calf together at all times until then. (M, 39 + F 37? Husband and wife)
6	Yes	0.5	Put the calf to suck, it drinks until full, then milk out the remainder.	yes			Put a tiny cup of mustard oil in calf’s mouth. Milk again the next day. (M, 49 + F, 65? Son and mother)
7	No		“Get the calf to drink as soon as possible…. Take no colostrum.”		Keep clean to prevent flies		“If calf stumbles when it starts to walk, steady it and take to teat. Can use fingers to encourage to suck and open mouth if required. “Make a fire to warm calf and boil water… Give cow warm water to drink and placenta falls away quickly.” (M, 42 + F, 65. Son and mother)
8	Yes	0.5	Draw colostrum from all four teats. “The calf drinks after milking is finished- approximately 1–1.5 hours old if he stands on own. Assist the calf to stand and suckle if necessary”				Give cow cooked food- broken rice, vegetables, banana tree. Give some colostrum sweets to cow and calf First 7–10 days cow and calf together at all times. (F, 25)
9	Yes	1	Milk all four teats half empty. The calf then drinks the other half. The calf drinks when it is about 30 minutes old.				(M, 43)
10	Yes	0.5	Help the calf to stand and drink. Open mouth and put on teat. Allow the calf to drink for 15–20 minutes, then milk colostrum for the house. We do not milk the udder empty	yes			“It can be very difficult to feed new born calves.” “If it drinks the first milk it will become strong and healthy. If it does not drink it will become thin and weak. It might die if it does not get the yellow milk.” (F, 33)
11	Yes	1	The calf stands after 1.5–2 hours, take to cow and help to feed. Calf drinks first, for 2–3 minutes, then we milk the cow. After 1–1.5 hours we allow the calf to drink again.	Yes			“Clean the calf, this is a woman’s job, clean face and nose, sometimes blow air in nostrils. Take calf out of shed to a sunny place if born in the day. The calf stands after 1.5–2 hours, then take (the calf) to cow and help to feed. Open its mouth and put to the teat, gently rub its head and then it starts to suck on its own. Sometimes you put your own finger in its mouth to encourage it to suck.” “The calf will drink full in 2 minutes.” “Someone looks after the calf for the first 12 hours to check that it is drinking” Next milking 10 days. Calf and calf are together all that time. (M, 58)
12	Yes	1	“Milk out first colostrum as soon as cow stands up. Don’t milk empty, take about half, so if the cow normally gives 2 litres, take one litre of colostrum. Then we help the calf to suck.”				“Look after the calf, if he can’t stand or suck, help him. If unable to drink- feed with bottle, 100 – 200ml, if not fed in 2 hours.” Give cow food including pepper and boiled vegetables (M, 35)
13	Yes	0.5	When the calf tries to stand- help it to feed from mother. The calf drinks for 15–20 minutes, then milk the cow “Estimate amount of milk from the size of the cow- half for the calf.”	yes		yes	If winter make fire to keep the calf warm. Give the cow hot water to drink, bamboo leaf and sugar cane leaf to eat- then the placenta falls quickly. Don’t milk cow for 7 days, cow and calf together the whole time. (M, 52 + M 55? Brothers)
14	Yes	1	Before the calf drinks milk out 1 litre from the cow using all 4 teats. The calf drinks half after the cow is milked. The cow is milked 1 hour after the calf is born,the calf first drinks at 1.5 hours old.	yes	Clean navel with coconut oil and protect from birds.		“Not drinking first yellow milk prevents calf from having diarrhoea.” Feed the cow- cabbage or any available vegetables and rice husk. “Observe carefully and check that the calf is drinking.” “Make also a lucky string of colostrum beads (from colostrum sweets) and put round the cow and calf’s necks.” (F, 34)
15	Yes	0.5–1	“Help the calf to drink- when he can stand, he drinks. The calf drinks 0.5 litres, then we milk for house.”				“Look after the calf, help it to drink. Make a fire if it is winter.” Give cow cooked food- papaya, vegetables, concentrate powder mix (mineral supplement). Next milking 10–12 days, the cow and calf are together all the time. (F, 45 + M 45? Wife and husband)
16	Yes	<1	Help the calf to stand, help it to drink from mother- usually the calf drinks after half an hour. The calf drinks until full, then we take colostrum	Yes			(M, 44 + F, 38. Husband and wife)
17	Yes	<1	The calf drinks until full, then we take colostrum	yes			(M, 55)
18	Yes	1	The calf drinks first, for 10–30 minutes. Usually starts 20–30 minutes after birth	yes	Check navel, if maggots found, put himax, or tobacco, might cover with a bandage.	yes	Feed the cow banana leaves and warm water, especially if placenta did not pass. (F, 25 + F, 55? Daughter and mother)

Table notes: Gender, ages and relationship of main interviewees noted; ? indicates age estimated either by participant or researchers.