Table 3.
A summary of selected deep learning methods on cardiac CT segmentation.
| Application | Selected works | Description | Imaging modality | Structure(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Two-step segmentation | ||||
| Zreik et al. (113) | Patch-based CNN | CTA | Myo | |
| Payer et al. (114) | A pipeline of two FCNs | MR/CT | WHS | |
| Tong et al. (115) | Deeply supervised 3D U-net | MR/CT | WHS | |
| Wang et al. (116) | Two-stage 3D U-net with dynamic ROI extraction | MR/CT | WHS | |
| Xu et al. (37) | Faster RCNN and U-net | CT | WHS | |
| Cardiac substructure segmentation |
Multi-view CNNs | |||
| Wang and Smedby (117) | Orthogonal 2D U-nets with shape context | MR/CT | WHS | |
| Mortazi et al. (118) | Multi-planar FCNs with an adaptive fusion strategy | MR/CT | WHS | |
| Hybrid loss | ||||
| Yang et al. (36) | 3D U-net with deep supervision | MR/CT | WHS | |
| Ye et al. (119) | 3D deeply-supervised U-net with multi-depth fusion | CT | WHS | |
| Others | ||||
| Zreik et al. (120) | Multi-scale FCN | CTA | Myo | |
| Joyce et al. (121) | Unsupervised segmentation with GANs | MR/CT | LV, Myo, RV | |
| End-to-end CNNs | ||||
| Moeskops et al. (122) | Multi-task CNN | CTA | Vessel | |
| Merkow et al. (38) | 3D U-net with deep multi-scale supervision | CTA | Vessel | |
| Lee et al. (123) | Template transformer network | CTA | Vessel | |
| CNN as pre-/post-processing | ||||
| Coronary artery segmentation |
Gülsün et al. (124) | CNN as path pruning | CTA | coronary artery centerline |
| Guo et al. (125) | Multi-task FCN with a minimal patch extractor | CTA | Coronary artery centerline | |
| Shen et al. (126) | 3D FCN with level set | CTA | Vessel | |
| Others | ||||
| Wolterink et al. (127) | CNN to estimate direction classification and radius regression | CTA | Coronary artery centerline | |
| Wolterink et al. (128) | Graph convolutional network | CTA | Vessel | |
| Two-step segmentation | ||||
| Wolterink et al. (129) | CNN pairs | CTA | CAC | |
| Lessmann et al. (130) | Multi-view CNNs | CT | CAC | |
| Lessmann et al. (131) | Two consecutive CNNs | CT | CAC | |
| Liu et al. (132) | 3D vessel-focused ConvNets | CTA | CAC, NCP, MCP | |
| Coronary artery calcium and plaque segmentation |
Direct segmentation | |||
| Santini et al. (133) | Patch-based CNN | CT | CAC | |
| Shadmi et al. (134) | U-net and FC DenseNet | CT | CAC | |
| Zhang et al. (135) | U-DenseNet | CT | CAC | |
| Ma and Zhang (136) | DenseRAU-net | CT | CAC | |