Nerve conduits for peripheral nerve regeneration fabricated using 3D printing. (a) Bioconduits composed of cryoGelMA and adipose-derived stem cells supported the reinnervation across a 10-mm sciatic nerve gap in rats [146], (b) bifurcating silicone tubes decorated with microgrooves and filled with hydrogels with GDNF and NGF induced nerve regeneration in rats [150], (c) 3D tube-like conduits composed solely of cell spheroids used to repair a 3-mm gap in a rat sciatic nerve [152], and (d) 3D channels made of photocurable PEGDA resin implanted in mice [153]. Images adapted with permission from (a) Hu et al. [146], (b) Johnson et al. [150], (c) Yurie et al. [152] and (d) Pateman et al. [153]. cryoGelMA, cryopolymerized gelatin methacryloyl; GDNF, human glial cell–derived neurotrophic factor; NGF, nerve growth factor; PEGDA, poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate; ASC, adipose-derived stem cell.