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(a) Sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in human spermatozoa and the relationship between the rate of their production and antioxidant defenses during oxidative stress. (b) ROS are capable of attacking polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) within cellular membranes, initiating lipid peroxidation cascades (LPO) and resulting in the production of cytotoxic lipid aldehydes such as 4-hydroxynonenal (4HNE). Abbreviations: EME, electromagnetic energy; ETC, electron transport chain.
