Table 1.
Sociodemographic variables and micronutrient status of Ghanaian women categorized by food security status.
| Food Secure n = 73 | Food Insecure n = 22 | X2 | p-Value | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | % | n | % | |||
| Age (years) | ||||||
| 18–24 | 28 | 38.4 | 10 | 45.4 | 0.35 | 0.551 |
| 25–35 | 45 | 61.6 | 12 | 54.6 | ||
| BMI | ||||||
| Normal (≤24.9 kg/m2) | 41 | 56.2 | 16 | 72.7 | 2.73 | 0.256 |
| Overweight (≥25 ≤ 29.9 kg/m2) | 18 | 24.7 | 2 | 9.1 | ||
| Obese (≥30 kg/m2) | 14 | 19.2 | 4 | 18.2 | ||
| Years of Schooling | ||||||
| 0–6 years | 12 | 16.4 | 3 | 13.6 | 0.28 | 0.786 |
| 7–9 years | 29 | 39.7 | 8 | 36.4 | ||
| >9 years | 32 | 43.8 | 11 | 50.0 | ||
| SES Index a | ||||||
| Lowest (40%) | 26 | 35.6 | 14 | 63.6 | 5.55 | 0.062 |
| Middle (40%) | 32 | 43.8 | 6 | 27.3 | ||
| Highest (20%) | 15 | 20.6 | 2 | 9.1 | ||
| Married | 34 | 46.6 | 4 | 18.2 | 5.68 | 0.017 * |
| Parity | ||||||
| No child | 32 | 43.8 | 12 | 54.5 | 0.78 | 0.377 |
| 1–4 children | 41 | 56.2 | 10 | 45.5 | ||
| Nutritional Biomarkers | ||||||
| Hemoglobin < 12 g/dL | 22 | 30.1 | 9 | 40.9 | 0.89 | 0.345 |
| Adjusted Ferritin b < 15 μg/L | 7 | 9.6 | 4 | 18.2 | 1.22 | 0.270 |
| TSAT < 16% | 19 | 26.0 | 8 | 36.4 | 0.89 | 0.346 |
| Adjusted Retinol c < 20 µg/dL | 6 | 8.2 | 1 | 4.6 | 0.33 | 0.563 |
| Adjusted Zinc d < 70 µg/dL | 12 | 16.4 | 3 | 13.6 | 0.10 | 0.752 |
| Copper < 90 µg/dL | 11 | 15.1 | 1 | 4.6 | 1.69 | 0.193 |
| 25(OH)D3 < 50 nmol/L e | 8 | 11.0 | 5 | 22.7 | 1.98 | 0.159 |
| 25(OH)D3 + 3-epi-25(OH)D3 <50 nmol/ e |
5 | 6.9 | 3 | 13.6 | 1.01 | 0.315 |
| Co-occurring Nutrient Deficiencies with TSAT as Iron biomarker f | ||||||
| Deficient in at least one nutrient | 39 | 54.4 | 13 | 59.1 | 0.22 | 0.640 |
| Deficient in at least two nutrients | 10 | 13.7 | 4 | 18.2 | 0.27 | 0.603 |
| Co-occurring Nutrient Deficiencies with Ferritin as Iron biomarker f | ||||||
| Deficient in at least one nutrient | 31 | 42.5 | 11 | 50.0 | 0.39 | 0.533 |
| Deficient in at least two nutrients | 9 | 12.3 | 3 | 13.6 | 0.03 | 0.871 |
BMI: Body mass index. SES: socioeconomic status. TSAT: Transferrin saturation. a SES Index was calculated based on ownership of the following items: radio, TV, fridge, video deck, DVD player, sewing machine, bicycle, car/truck, agricultural land, livestock’s, occupancy status of household, renting of land or building for business. Principal component analysis was performed and divided into three groups; lowest 40%, Middle 40%, Highest 20%. b Adjustment using correction factors from Thurman et al. [30]. c Adjustment using correction factors from Thurnham et al. [35]. d Adjustment using correction factors from Mburu et al. [36]. e No participant had a value < 30nmol/L for 25(OH)D3; the range defined as insufficiency was between 30–50 nmol/L, f Co-occurring nutrient deficiencies out of the five nutrients studied (iron, zinc, copper, retinol and 25(OH)D3), * Significant p < 0.05.