Table 1.
Classification, structures, and action of terpenes and terpenoids described in this article.
| Class of Terpenes | Name of Compound | Plant Source | Structure | Affected Component of Calcium Signaling |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tetraterpenes -xantophylles |
Astaxanthin | Species in the genus Adonis |
|
↓NMDAR expression ↑RYR2 expression ↓L-VGCC A1D expression ↓VGCC current ↑Calbindin expression ↑Parvalbumin expression ↓calpain activity ↓calcineurin activity ↓glutamate toxicity |
| Tetraterpene β-carotenes | Lycopene | Tomatoes, watermelons, pink grapefruits, apricots, pink guavas |
|
↓Cav2.1 activity ↓Cav2.2 activity ↓glutamate toxicity ↓ PKC activity ↑Ca/ATPase expression |
| β-carotene | Carrots, spinach, pumpkins, papayas, sweet potatoes, winter squash, mangoes, cantaloupes, red peppers |
|
↓CAMKIV activity | |
| Crocin and crocetin |
Crocus sativus, Gardenia |
|
↓NMDAR current ↓glutamate toxicity |
|
| Diterpenes | Retinoic acid | Mangos, papayas, many of the squashes, carrots, sweet potatoes * |
|
L-VGCC expression N-VGCC expression VGCC activity ↑NCX1 expression ↓AMPAR expression |
| Monoterpenes | Linalool |
Lauraceae, Citrus fruits, Birch trees |
|
↓↑Ca-dependent K-channel PKC activity ↓calpain |
| Thymol | Thyme, Origanum, Ajowan |
|
L-VGCC action T-VGCC action |
|
| Paeoniflorin | Paeonia lactiflora |
|
↓glutamate toxicity ↑calbindin expression ↓CaMKII activity |
* sources for precursor of retinoic acid—β-carotene.