Table 4.

Overview of animal models used in TMJ tissue engineering.

Species	Cost*	TMJ motion	Models	Pros	Cons
Rodent	$	Rotation	Disease and subcutaneous implants	Cost-effective Genetic control	Limited surgical site
Rabbit	$$	Translation	Preclinical, disc and condyle	Cost-effective	Spontaneous healing, clinical translation
Minipig	$$$$$	Rotation and translation	Preclinical, disc	Human-like model, easy to handle	Expensive
Dog	$$$$	Rotation	Preclinical, disc	-	Ethical concerns
Goat/Sheep	$$$	Translation	Preclinical, disc and condyle	Cost effective, obtainability	Non-human TMJ movement
Pig	$$$$	Rotation and translation	None published	Human-like model	Rearing time, housing requirements
Monkey (Rhesus)	$$$$$	Rotation and translation	Preclinical, disc	Human-like model	Expensive, ethical concerns

^*Cost based on animal purchase price and 90 days of housing ($ = <$500; $$ = <$1,000; $$$ = <$1,500; $$$$ = <$3,000; $$$$$ = >$5,000)^[252–262].