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. 2020 Jan 11;35(3):591–606. doi: 10.1007/s10980-019-00964-y

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a The Bucklige Welt study landscape in Eastern Austria, indicating its elevation gradient (contours with 20 m interval (thicker line every 100 meters) and color from light (low elevation 200 m) to dark (high elevation 750 m) brown and forested area for simulations (blue). The inset map of Europe shows the location of the landscape at the trailing edge of Norway spruces range distribution (indicated in dark green, de Vries et al. 2015). b Visualization of the 15 simulated landscape composition and configuration scenarios