Table 3.
Factors associated with minimum meal frequency in Ethiopia, 2005–2016
| Variable | 2005 | 2011 | 2016 | 2005–2016 | 2005–2016 | p for trend | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n (%) | OR (95% CI) | n (%) | OR (95% CI) | n (%) | OR (95% CI) | n (%) | OR (95% CI) | % point change (95% CI) | ||
| Socioeconomic factors | ||||||||||
| Maternal education | ||||||||||
| No schooling | 869 (39.0) | 1.00 | 875 (43.9) | 1.00 | 764 (42.2) | 1.00 | 2508 (41.6) | 1.00 | 3.2 [−2.0, 8.5] | .386 |
| Primary school | 235 (47.1) | 1.24 [0.94, 1.64] | 469 (56.6) | 1.31 [1.05, 1.65] | 391 (41.9) | 1.13 [0.89, 1.45] | 1094 (48.4) | 1.18 [1.04, 1.35] | −5.2 [−13.1, 2.7] | .191 |
| Secondary and higher | 80 (58.3) | 1.37 [0.81, 2.29] | 84 (66.3) | 1.20 [0.74, 1.95] | 147 (59.6) | 2.05 [1.37, 3.08] | 312 (60.9) | 1.57 [1.22, 2.01] | 1.3 [−12.5, 15.1] | .480 |
| Maternal occupation | ||||||||||
| No occupation | 777 (38.9) | 1.00 | 633 (44.2) | 1.00 | 709 (40.5) | 1.00 | 2119 (40.9) | 1.00 | 1.6 [−3.6, 6.7] | .824 |
| Formal occupation | 131 (56.7) | 1.23 [0.89, 1.68] | 308 (59.3) | 1.60 [1.26, 2.02] | 211 (44.6) | 1.11 [0.85, 1.46] | 650 (53.1) | 1.35 [1.16, 1.56] | −12.1[−23.9, −0.4] | .959 |
| Informal occupation | 274 (43.3) | 1.16 [0.89, 1.51] | 479 (49.2) | 1.41 [1.13, 1.75] | 381 (50.1) | 1.63 [1.28, 2.08] | 1134 (47.9) | 1.43 [1.26, 1.63] | 6.9 [−1.9, 15.7] | .147 |
| Partner education | ||||||||||
| No schooling | 614 (38.6) | 1.00 | 635 (44.9) | 1.00 | 518 (41.8) | 1.00 | 1841 (41.6) | 1.00 | 2.9 [−2.6, 8.4] | .237 |
| Primary school | 393 (41.9) | 1.11 [0.87, 1.41] | 626 (50.4) | 1.08 [0.89, 1.29] | 491 (42.2) | 0.82 [0.66, 1.02] | 1509 (45.2) | 1.03 [0.91, 1.15] | 0.3 [−6.3, 6.9] | .270 |
| Secondary and higher | 171 (53.1) | 1.18 [0.82, 1.71] | 147 (58.1) | 1.05 [0.76, 1.45] | 225 (55.2) | 0.99 [0.75, 1.31] | 542 (55.3) | 1.09 [0.91, 1.3] | 2.1 [−8.0, 12.1] | .491 |
| Household wealth status | ||||||||||
| Poor | 468 (37.3) | 1.00 | 601 (44.5) | 1.00 | 512 (38.7) | 1.00 | 1581 (40.2) | 1.00 | 1.4 [−4.4, 7.3] | .588 |
| Middle | 250 (40.1) | 0.99 [0.75, 1.29] | 305 (51.3) | 1.18 [0.93, 1.50] | 310 (47.3) | 1.34 [0.99, 1.80] | 865 (46.2) | 1.13 [0.97, 1.31] | 7.2 [−1.7, −16.2] | .216 |
| Rich | 467 (47.3) | 1.19 [0.92, 1.53] | 523 (52.0) | 1.06 [0.84, 1.33] | 479 (47.5) | 1.01 [0.76, 1.35] | 1468 (44.5) | 1.11 [0.96, 1.28] | 0.2 [−6.2, 6.6] | .731 |
| Demographic factors | ||||||||||
| Maternal age | ||||||||||
| 15–24 years | 335 (40.3) | 1.00 | 400 (46.7) | 1.00 | 343 (40.9) | 1.00 | 1078 (42.7) | 1.00 | 0.6 [−6.3, 7.4] | .377 |
| 25–34 years | 560 (40.2) | 1.00 [0.78, 1.29] | 752 (49.9) | 1.18 [0.93, 1.50] | 697 (45.4) | 1.26 [0.98, 1.63] | 2009 (45.3) | 1.13 [0.99, 1.29] | 5.2 [−0.01, 10.4] | .289 |
| 35–49 years | 290 (45.1) | 1.29 [0.91, 1.82] | 276 (47.2) | 1.08 [0.77, 1.52] | 262 (42.7) | 1.59 [1.11, 2.26] | 828 (45.0) | 1.27 [1.05, 1.53] | −2.5 [−10.4, 5.4] | .526 |
| Listening to radio | ||||||||||
| No | 692 (37.4) | 1.00 | 639 (42.6) | 1.00 | 909 (41.8) | 1.00 | 2240 (40.6) | 1.00 | 4.4 [−0.2, 9.0] | .929 |
| Yes | 493 (48.5) | 1.29 [1.04, 1.59] | 789 (54.6) | 1.36 [1.13, 1.65] | 393 (48.2) | 1.10 [0.87, 1.39] | 1674 (51.1) | 1.28 [1.14, 1.44] | −0.3 [−7.6, 7.0] | .719 |
| Reading newspaper/magazine | ||||||||||
| No | 1093 (40.8) | 1.00 | 1280 (47.3) | 1.00 | 1192 (43.0) | 1.00 | 3564 (43.7) | 1.00 | 2.2 [−2.1, 6.5] | .576 |
| Yes | 89 (49.0) | 1.89 [0.78, 1.80] | 149 (61.7) | 1.39 [0.95, 2.03] | 110 (51.1) | 0.87 [0.60, 1.28] | 348 (54.5) | 1.07 [0.87, 1.32] | 2.0 [−10.7, 14.8] | .971 |
| Watching TV | ||||||||||
| No | 1048 (40.5) | 1.00 | 885 (45.0) | 1.00 | 1010 (41.4) | 1.00 | 2942 (42.1) | 1.00 | 0.9 [−3.5, 5.3] | .660 |
| Yes | 134 (49.2) | 0.76 [0.53, 1.09] | 541 (55.1) | 1.02 [0.83, 1.26] | 291 (53.3) | 1.19 [0.88, 1.60] | 967 (53.7) | 1.06 [0.91, 1.23] | 4.1 [−6.3, 14.6] | .820 |
| Desire for the pregnancy | ||||||||||
| Desired the pregnancy | 959 (40.7) | 1.00 | 1316 (49.5) | 1.00 | 1186 (43.4) | 1.00 | 3461 (44.7) | 1.00 | 2.7 [−1.6, 7.0] | .414 |
| Not desired the pregnancy | 226 (44.6) | 1.24 [0.96, 1.59] | 113 (38.4) | 0.63 [0.45, 0.89] | 116 (45.3) | 1.08 [0.74, 1.60] | 454 (43.1) | 0.99 [0.83, 1.17] | 7.6 [−10.6, 12.1] | .546 |
| Health service factors | ||||||||||
| Antenatal visit | ||||||||||
| None | 809 (39.9) | 1.00 | 736 (43.6) | 1.00 | 410 (40.1) | 1.00 | 1956 (41.2) | 1.00 | −0.3 [−6.0, 6.6] | .280 |
| 1–3 | 181 (39.7) | 0.80 [0.62, 1.05] | 376 (52.2) | 1.19 [0.97, 1.46] | 403 (44.1) | 0.89 [0.69, 1.15] | 961 (45.9) | 1.03 [0.91, 1.17] | 4.5 [−3.4, 12.3] | .332 |
| 4+ | 187 (51.9) | 1.31 [0.95, 1.81] | 315 (59.1) | 1.25 [0.96, 1.64] | 477 (46.2) | 0.91 [0.69, 1.19] | 979 (50.8) | 1.11 [0.95, 1.30] | −5.7 [−14.1, 2.8] | .111 |
| Postnatal check‐up | ||||||||||
| No | 1095 (40.5) | 1.00 | 1378 (48.2) | 1.00 | 1189 (43.3) | 1.00 | 3662 (44.1) | 1.00 | 2.8 [−1.5, 7.1] | .662 |
| Yes | 89 (54.9) | 1.14 [0.80, 1.63] | 51 (54.7) | 1.75 [1.15, 2.67] | 113 (46.8) | 1.15 [0.83, 1.60] | 252 (50.9) | 1.17 [0.97, 1.42] | −8.2 [−20.9, 4.6] | .522 |
| Community‐level factors | ||||||||||
| Place of residence | ||||||||||
| Urban | 115 (52.6) | 1.00 | 210 (52.0) | 1.00 | 203 (56.0) | 1.00 | 529 (53.6) | 1.00 | 3.4 [−7.0, 13.8] | .789 |
| Rural | 1069 (40.4) | 1.00 [0.66, 1.52] | 1218 (47.9) | 1.16 [0.80, 1.66] | 1098 (41.9) | 0.82 [0.56, 1.21] | 3386 (43.3) | 0.95 [0.77, 1.18] | 1.4 [−2.9, 5.8] | .458 |
| Region of residence | ||||||||||
| Large central | 1101 (41.7) | 1.00 | 1340 (49.2) | 1.00 | 1165 (43.2) | 1.00 | 3606 (44.7) | 1.00 | 1.5 [−2.9, 6.0] | .305 |
| Small peripheral | 46 (28.1) | 0.72 [0.54, 0.95] | 42 (29.3) | 0.54 [0.43, 0.67] | 77 (40.5) | 0.92 [0.72, 1.19] | 165 (33.2) | 0.74 [0.64, 0.84] | 12.4 [4.9, 19.8] | .704 |
| Metropolis | 37 (61.8) | 1.11 [0.80, 1.54] | 47 (55.3) | 0.98 [0.72, 1.33] | 59 (59.3) | 1.08 [0.79, 1.47] | 143 (58.5) | 1.04 [0.88, 1.24] | 2.4 [−14.2, 9.3] | .915 |
Note. n (%): weighted count and proportion for each outcome variable by study factors; % point change indicates percentage point changes from 2005 to 2016.
Abbreviations: CI, confidence; OR, odds ratio.
ORs of socioeconomic factors were adjusted for demographic, health service, and community‐level factors.
ORs of demographic factors were adjusted for socioeconomic, health service, and community‐level factors.
ORs of health service factors were adjusted for socioeconomic, demographic, and community‐level factors.
ORs of community‐level factors were adjusted for socioeconomic, demographic, and health service factors.