Table 2.
Impact of essential oils and the methods of application.
| Latin Name | Plants Common Name | Species | Routes Used in Experiments | Results | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Achillea wilhelmsii | Achillea | Rat | IP; gavage | Anxiolytic effect; improved healing of gastric ulcer; anti-hypercholesterolemic | [94,95,96] |
| Acorus gramineus | Grass-leaf sweet flag | Mice; rats; bacteria | Inhalation; gavage; in vitro | Anti-convulsive; sedative effect; act on central nervous system via GABA system; anti-depression; anti-epilepsy through GABA system; anti-fungal | [97,98,99,100] |
| Acorus tatarinowii | Acorus | Mice | IP; gavage | Anti-depressant; enhanced serotonin transporter | [101,102] |
| Anethum graveolens | Dill | Mice | Topical | Improved infected wound healing; anti-oxidant | [103,104] |
| Annona vepretorum | Anaticum | Mice | Gavage | Anti-oxidant; Anti-convulsant; sedative; anxiolytic; anti-depressant | [105,106] |
| Artemisia herba-alba | White wormwood | Bacteria | In vitro | Anti-bacterial activity; anti-fungal; anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-bacterial; anti-inflammatory | [107,108,109] |
| Artemisia ludoviciana | Silver wormwood | Mice | IP | Anti-nociceptive | [110] |
| Artemisia judaica | Judean wormwood | Yeasts | In vitro | Anti-oxidant; Anti-fungal; anti-biofilm; anti-inflammatory | [111,112] |
| Artemisia dracunculus | Tarragon | Rats; Mice | IP | Anti-convulsant; Anti-nociceptive effect; anti-inflammatory effect | [113,114,115] |
| Asarum heterotropoides | Asarum | Mice | Inhalation | Anti-depressant; anti-bacterial | [116,117] |
| Camellia sinensis | Tea tree; tea shrub | Mice | Inhalation | GABA-A enhanced using oolong tea; anti-oxidant using green tea | [118,119] |
| Cananga odorata | Ylang-ylang | Human | Inhalation | Decreased arousal level; effective in treating depression, high blood pressure, and anxiety. Anti-microbial, anti-biofilm, anti-inflammatory, anti-vector, insect-repellent, anti-diabetic, anti-fertility, anti-melanogenesis | [45,120] |
| Cinnamon verum | Cinnamon | Mice | Topical | Improved infected wound healing | [121] |
| Citrus aurantium, L. | Bitter orange | Mice | Gavage | Anxiolytic effect mediated by 5-HT (1A) receptors; reduce cholesterol; larvicidal effect | [122,123,124] |
| Citrus bergamia | Bergamot orange | Mice; rat | Decreased stress-induced anxiety; anxiolytic, sedative; suppress pain | [125,126,127,128] | |
| Citrus sinensis | Sweet orange | Mice; rat; human | Anxiolytic effect; nitrogenic neurotransmission plays a role | [129,130,131] | |
| Copaifera paupera | Oleoresin | Mice | Topical application | Improved wound healing; anti-leishmanial | [68,132] |
| Coriandrum sativum, L. | Coriander | Rat | Inhalation | Anxiolytic effect; cognitive enhancement; anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-oxidative effect | [133,134,135] |
| Cymbopogon citratus | Lemon grass | Mice | Gavage; IP | Anxiolytic effect through GABA system; increased sleeping time; anti-convulsive effect at least partially mediated by GABA system; cholesterol reduction; anti-amoebic, anti-bacterial, anti-diarrheal, anti-filarial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-malarial, anti-mutagenicity, anti-mycobacterial, anti-oxidants, and hypoglycemic and neurobehavioral effects | [136,137,138,139,140] |
| Cymbopogon winterianus | Citronella grass | Mice | IP | Anti-convulsant; Molluschicidal and larvicidal activity | [137,141,142] |
| Dysphania graveolens | Fetid goosefoot | Mice | Gavage | Anti-nociceptive, analgesic effect not through 5-HT2A/2C | [143] |
|
Hyptis
Mutabilis |
Tropical bushmint |
Silver catfish | In water | Sedative effect not through GABA system |
[144] |
| Lavandula angustifolia | English lavender | Human; Mice; in vitro study with rat cells | Inhalation | Decreased cognitive function, decreased arousal level; inhibited TBPS binding to rat GABA-A receptor; anxiolytic-like effect not through GABA system; anosmia does not impair anxiolytic effect; pain suppression; reduced agitation and physical non-aggressive behavior in older people with dementia | [43,144,145,146,147,148,149] |
| Lippia alba | Bushy lippia | Silver catfish | In water | Anesthetic effect through GABA system; S-(+)-linalool in lippia has sedative and anesthetic effect; citral and linalool in it have anesthetic effect | [150,151,152,153] |
| Matricaria chamomilla | Chamomile | Human; review of animal studies | Inhalation; capsule consumption | Anxiety suppression; anti-inflammatory effect, anti-mutagenic effect, cholesterol-reduction effect, anti-spasmotic effect, anxiolytic effect | [154,155,156] |
| Melissa officinalis, L. | Common balm; lemon balm | Rat; human | In vitro; inhalation | Anti-agitation; anti-microbial | [144,149,157,158] |
| Mentha x piperita | Peppermint | Human | Inhalation; digested capsules | Increased arousal level Showed less fatigue to cognitively demanding tasks and showed higher cognitive function; anti-oxidant |
[45,80,159] |
| Nigella sativa, L. | Black cumin | Mice | Inhalation | Anti-convulsant effect | [160] |
| Piper guineense | Pepper | Mice | Inhalation; IP | Sedative effect; anxiolytic effect; central nervous system depressant; rectal temperature suppressed, muscle relaxant, induced catalepsy; anti-psychotic effect, anti-convulsant effect | [161,162] |
| Rosmarinus officinalis | Rosemary | Mice; human | Inhalation; topical application | Suppressed serum corticosterone, brain dopamine increased; anxiolytic effect, Increased arousal level More active and fresher feeling; blood pressure enhanced, heart rate enhanced, improved infected wound healing; enhanced cognitive function in humans |
[43,44,47,163] |
| Salvia lavandulifolia | Spanish sage | Human | Drink | Enhanced cognitive function | [46] |
| Salvia officinalis | Common sage | Human | Drink | Enhanced cognitive function | [46] |
| Salvia sclarea | Clary sage | Rat | IP | Anti-depressant; anti-stressor; modulation of dopamine | [164] |
| Syzygium aromaticum | Clove | In vitro | Anti-oxidant; anti-bacterial effect; anti-cancer effect | [165,166] | |
| Tagetes minuta, L. | Black mint | Chicks | SC | Anxiolytic | [167] |
| Thymus capitatus | Spanish oregano | Mice; rats | Gavage | Anti-nociception; anti-microbial | [168,169] |
| Valeriana officinalis, L. | Valerian | Review | Sedative effect; suppressed GABA breakdown | [170] |
SC: subcutaneous, IP: intraperitoneal injection, TBPS: tert-butylbicyclophosphorothionate, 5HT: 5-hydroxytryptamine serotonin receptor, 2A, 2B, 2C are subtypes, GABA: gamma-aminobutyric acid