Table 2.

Associations of sociodemographic characteristics, self-reported health, major depressive episode, and substance use with level of opioid use among adolescents 12–17 years of age, United States: 2015–2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health.

	Opioid use	Opioid misuse	Opioid use disorder
Sex
Male	1.0	1.0	1.0
Female	1.1 (0.9–1.2)	0.8 (0.6–1.1)	1.5 (0.8–2.9)
Race and ethnicity
White, Non-Hispanic	1.0	1.0	1.0
Black, non-Hispanic	1.2 (1.0–1.5)*	1.5 (1.1–2.1)*	1.2 (0.3–4.6)
Hispanic	0.9 (0.8–1.1)	0.9 (0.6–1.4)	1.7 (0.7–3.8)
Other, non-Hispanic	0.9 (0.7–1.2)	0.9 (0.5–1.7)	0.8 (0.4–1.9)
Total family income
Less than $20,000	1.0	1.0	1.0
$20,000 - $49,999	1.0 (0.8–1.2)	0.8 (0.5–1.2)	1.2 (0.5–3.3)
$50,000 - $74,999	1.1 (0.8–1.3)	0.5 (0.3–0.9) *	1.0 (0.2–4.4)
$75,000 or More	0.9 (0.8–1.1)	0.6 (0.4–1.0)	1.1 (0.4–3.1)
County metro/nonmetro status
Large Metro	1.0	1.0	1.0
Small Metro	1.1 (1.0–1.3)	1.0 (0.7–1.4)	1.2 (0.6–2.3)
Nonmetro	1.0 (0.9–1.2)	1.2 (0.8–1.8)	1.8 (0.8–4.0)
Self reported overall health
Excellent	1.0	1.0	1.0
Very Good	1.2 (1.0–1.4) *	1.4 (1.0–1.9)	1.3 (0.0–3.5)
Good	1.4 (1.1–1.6) **	1.2 (0.8–1.9)	1.7 (0.6–4.8)
Fair/Poor	1.4 (1.0–2.0) *	2.0 (1.1–3.9) *	7.3 (2.3–23.3) **
Major depressive episode
No	1.0	1.0	1.0
Yes	1.4 (1.2–1.7)***	1.8 (1.0–2.4)***	3.9 (2.0–7.5)***
Any tobacco use past year
No	1.0	1.0	1.0
Yes	1.5 (1.2–1.9)**	2.3 (1.7–3.2)***	1.8 (0.9–3.6)
Any alcohol use past year
No	1.0	1.0	1.0
Yes	1.9 (1.6–2.3)**	2.9 (2.0–4.1)	2.6 (1.3–5.4)*
Any marijuana use past year
No	1.0	1.0	1.0
Yes	0.8 (0.6–1.0) *	2.1 (1.3–3.5) **	1.3 (0.6–2.9)
Any illegal substance use past month (excluding marijuana)
No	1.0	1.0	1.0
Yes	1.8 (1.1–2.8) *	23.9 (16.1–35.7) ***	119.9 (50.7–283.2) ***
Any heroin use past year
No	1.0	1.0	1.0
Yes	3.1 (0.3–31.5)	1.1 (0.1–12.9)	0.2 (0.0–7.7)

Relative risk ratios (95% confidence intervals) are shown.

^*(p < .05,

^**p < .01,

^***p < .001).

Note: In each column the cohort of adolescents with “no opioid use” is the reference group.