Table 1:

Studies that incorporated manual reaction time, eye-tracking, event-related potentials and neuroimaging in screen-based attention paradigms to assess attention bias and the effect of attention bias modification training

Study Type	Measurement Method	Main Advantages	Task Paradigm	Youngest Age Studied	Key Findings	Representative Readings
AB Assessment ABMT	Manual RT	• Objective, convenient index of attention task performance. • Most commonly used –facilitates cross-study comparisons	Dot-probe, Posner, visual search Dot-probe, Posner, visual search	4 years 6 years	• Pediatric anxiety is associated with AB to threat, although the effect size was small. • Anxiety symptomatology and age might moderate the bias anxiety association. • Active ABMT reduces anxiety symptoms and reactivity to experimentally induced stress. • However, the anxiolytic effect of the active ABMT is not significantly greater than placebo training in some studies. Changes in AB are not consistently observed after ABMT.	• Abend et al (2018) • Reviews:  ○ Bar-Haim et al (2007)  ○ Dudeney et al (2015) • Reviews:  ○ Britton et al (2017)  ○ Lowther and Newman (2014)
AB Assessment	Eye-tracking	• Fine-grained, online measure of overt attention • Continuously records parameters of eye- movement (fixation location, latency, and duration) and pupil dilation • Temporally and spatially sensitive	Free-viewing, overlap, dot-probe	4 months	• Normative AB to threat emerges early in infancy. Temperament and contextual factors affect individual differences in threat-related AB patterns, which in turn have an impact on infants’ socioemotional development. • Pediatric anxiety is associated with AB to threat – manifested as initial facilitated engagement to threat, threat avoidance, and difficulty in threat disengagement.	• Infant:  ○ Leppänen (2016; review)  ○ Pérez-Edgar et al (2017) • Child:  ○ Burris et al (2017a)  ○ In-Albon et al (2010)  ○ Seefeldt et al (2014)  ○ Shechner et al (2013)  ○ Price et al (2016b)
AB Assessment	ERPs	• Captures brain’s electrocortical response time-locked to specific stimuli • Fine-grained temporal resolution, allowing for continuous measures of chronometry of neutral processes • Can capture covert attention	Visual paired comparison, free-viewing, overlap, attention network test, emotional face- matching task, dot-probe, Posner	3 months	• Infants show augmented Nc, N290, and P400 responses toward fearful faces, indicating facilitated attention allocation toward the threatening stimuli. • Initial facilitated engagement toward threatening face, indexed by greater N170 amplitudes, and sustained attention toward threat, indexed by potentiated LPP response, may be related to pediatric anxiety and enhanced risk for anxiety. Conversely, greater deployment of attention control, indexed by greater P2 response, may mitigate anxiety vulnerability in children.	• Infant:  ○ de Haan et al (2004),  ○ Jessen and Grossmann (2015),  ○ Leppänen et al (2007) • Child:  ○ Kujawa et al (2015),  ○ O’Toole et al (2013),  ○ Thai et al (2016)
AB Assessment ABMT	Neuroimaging	fMRI: • Measures neural activities in vivo by measuring changes in oxygenated blood flow • Provides enhanced spatial resolution • Can capture activation in subcortical regions fNIRS: • Uses near-infrared light to measure oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin changes associated with neural activities in the cortex • Greater temporal resolution than fMRI; motion-tolerant; can be used to study neutral activities in real-life contexts	Dot-probe, face-attention paradigm, emotional face- matching task   Dot-probe	• fMRI: 7 years • fNIRS: 7 months  8 years	• Infants’ individual differences in temperament are related to individual differences in prefrontal responses to faces. • Pediatric anxiety is associated with aberrant activations in the amygdala, ACC, and PFC regions in response to threatening faces, indicating that perturbations in neural functions supporting automatic and controlled attention processes are associated with anxiety. • Active ABMT alleviates anxiety symptoms, compared with the placebo group, and it can enhance the treatment effect of CBT • Active ABMT attenuates limbic activation and increases prefrontal activation in response to the threat- bias contrast. • Baseline differences in amygdala activation may moderate treatment effect.	• Infant:  ○ Ravicz et al (2015) • Child: reviews:  ○ Blackford and Pine (2012),  ○ Guyer et al (2013),  ○ Swartz and Monk (2013) • Britton et al (2014) • Liu et al (2018) •White et al (2017b)

Notes: published ABMT studies have implemented eye-tracking and ERP measures with adults but not with youth (< 18 years old). AB=attention bias; ABMT=attention bias modification training, RT=reaction time, ERPs=event-related potentials, fMRI=functional magnetic resonance imaging, fNIRS=functional near-infrared spectroscopy