Table 1.  .

Examples of universal VLP platforms for antigen presentation

Strategy of antigen immobilization on particle surface	Examples of use for antigen exposure	Reference
Covalent bond formation between ε-amino group of Lys and antigen containing free Cys group with aid of cross-linking agent	Diphtheria toxin, tumor necrosis factor (TNFα), model vaccines against number of diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, autoimmune encephalitis, myocarditis, hypertension, Alzheimer’s disease, obesity, atherosclerosis	[79, 80]
His6-tag binding with antigen via trisNTA molecule on VLP surface	Model molecules including biotin, Alexa 488 (fluorescent dye), and GFP protein conjugated with trisNTA	[81, 87]
Isopeptide bond formation between SpyTag (integrated into VLP monomers) and SpyCatcher (fused with antigen) peptides	Vaccine against breast cancer (HER2 antigen presentation). It is also implemented to develop vaccines against malaria and tuberculosis	[82–86]