Table 1.
Environmental triggers | Disease | Reference |
---|---|---|
Allopurinol | Immune haemolytic anaemia | [65] |
Captopril | Autoimmune thrombocytopenia | [66] |
Chlorpromazine | Anti-phospholipid syndrome, haemolytic anaemia, SLE, AiLD | [67–73] |
Estrogens | PBC, SLE, RA | [149–152, 310–314] |
Halothane | AIH | [72, 315, 316] |
Iodine | Autoimmune thyroid | [57] |
Penicillins | AiLD, immune haemolytic anaemia | [72, 317] |
Rifampicin | AIH, autoimmune thyroid, immune haemolytic anaemia | [318–320] |
Tetracyclines | AIH, DM, SLE | [74, 321–330] |
Vaccinations | PBC, AIH, SLE, RA, MS, MG, DM, polyarteritis nodosa | [270, 331–343] |
Smoking | PBC, COPD, RA, autoimmune thyroid | [149–152, 344–349] |
Silicone and collagen implants | SLE, Sjogren’s, SSc | [347, 350–356] |
This table provides examples of several non-infectious agents which have been associated with the development of autoimmune disease. These agents are highly varied and range from pharmacological materials to waste products and cigarette smoke. Note that this list is not extensive, but serves to give examples from a variety of sources
AIH autoimmune hepatitis, AiLD autoimmune liver disease, COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, DM dermatomyositis, MG myasthenia gravis; rheumatoid arthritis, SLE systemic lupus erythematosus, SSc systemic sclerosis