Table 1.

Risk groups for vitamin D deficiency including high-risk medications.

Risk group	Medication
Chronic disease, particularly kidney, heart, and liver failure, in particular transplant candidates and recipients	Several antiretroviral medications
Gastrointestinal diseases including Crohn’s disease, inflammatory bowel disease, and malabsorption syndromes	Antifungals, e.g., ketoconazole
Granuloma-forming disorders including sarcoidosis and tuberculosis	Several antiseizure medications
Hospitalized individuals, especially ICU patients	Cholestyramine
Hyper- and hypoparathyroidism	Glucocorticoids
Obese children and adults, particularly after bariatric surgery	Rifampicin
Older adults with a history of falls and/or fractures, osteoporosis
Oncologic patients
Pregnant and lactating women, preparing for pregnancy
Reduced UV-B exposure or effectiveness (shift workers, immobilized patients, chronic neuropsychiatric disease, dressing habits, burn and skin cancer survivors, and nonwhite persons)
Respiratory diseases including COPD, asthma, and cystic fibrosis