Table 1:
Geographic Distribution of Studies by Methodological Orientation, Population Categories, and Policy Contextc
| Country | Studies by methodology | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Quantitative | Qualitative/Ethnographic/Mixed | Population categoriesa | |
| Australia |
McCallum and McLaren (2011) McLaren, et al. (2015) |
Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual (LGB) adolescents and Heterosexual counterparts | |
| Policy context: Australia passed a referendum supporting same-sex marriage in 2017, resulting in the Marriage Amendment Act 2017, in spite of opponents who argued that same-sex marriage was harmful for children. The debates around the referendum sparked hate speech, especially in social media. Currently, the country is grappling with questions about whether religious institutions, like schools, can discriminate against LGBTQ students and employees. The country recently saw increased activism on behalf of aboriginal queer youth due to their disproportionately high suicide rates. Studies are examining whether marriage equality creates a positive policy context for youth suffering from mental health issues, and conversion therapy bans are being considered at the federal level. (Mendos & ILGA, 2019) | |||
| Belgium | Aerts, et al. (2012) | Dewaele, et al. (2013) | LGB adolescents |
| Policy context: Belgium has been a leader in the international community on behalf of the human rights of LGBTQ people. Marriage was defined to include same-sex partnerships in 2003, and adoption laws granted full joint-paternal rights in 2006. The Anti-Discrimination Laws of 2003, 2007 and 2013 ban discrimination based on sexual orientation. In 2013, article 22 of the Anti-Discrimination Law ‘prohibits the incitement of discrimination, hate, segregation or violence’ based on sexual orientation (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 265) | |||
| Brazil |
Asinelli-Luz and da Cunha (2011) Brandelli Costa, et al. (2017) |
Murasaki and Galheigo 2016 Seffner (2013)b |
Sexual minority youth; Gay, Lesbian, and Homosexual youth experiencing sexual stigma and homophobia; Sexual and gender diversity in schools and public spaces |
| Policy context: Brazil had been a leader in promoting the rights of LGBTQ youth through their ‘Brazil without Homophobia’ and ‘Schools without Homophobia’ programs until the recent changes in the country’s political climate and support for state-sponsored homophobia (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). A decision banning conversion therapy was repealed by a Federal judge in 2017; government is considering policies prohibiting teachers from using of the term ‘sexual orientation’ in schools (HRW, 2018, n.p.). Several state-level laws prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation in Brazil, although the federal constitution does not (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). | |||
| Canada |
Saewyc, et al. (2009)* Veale, et al. (2017)b Wilson, et al. (2018) Martin and D’Augelli (2003)* |
John, et al. (2014)b Lapointe (2015)b Morrison, et al. (2014) Porta, et al. (2017)*b |
LGB adolescents and Heterosexual counterparts; Transgender adolescents; Homosexual adolescents; LGBTQ youth and straight allies; Questioning sexual identity |
| Policy context: In 1996, the Canadian Human Rights Act protects against discrimination based on sexual orientation, and same-sex marriage was legally recognized in 2005 (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). The Canadian government made a public apology for its history of ‘state-sponsored, systematic oppression, and rejection’ of LGBTQ people in 2017 (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 118). In 2018, Bill C-66 ‘expunges the records of individuals who were prosecuted because of their sexuality when homosexuality was criminalized’ (HRW, 2018, n.p.). Canada hosted the second conference of the Equal Rights Coalition (ERC) in 2018, ‘giving a voice to young LGBTI people who are often underrepresented in forums where the rights of LGBTI people are discussed’ (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 60). Conversion therapy has been banned in several Canadian provinces. The Canadian state of Ontario has seen challenges to the inclusion of sexual and gender identities in sex education in schools. In 2017, the Canadian government instituted the ‘X’ non-binary gender marker option for passports and immigration documents. (Mendos & ILGA, 2019) | |||
| Israel | Shilo, et al. (2015) | Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Queer and Questioning youth | |
| Policy context: Israel has some protections against discrimination against persons based on ‘sexual tendencies’ (p. 249) and recognizes ‘reputed [same-sex] couples’ in a status that parallel that of different-sexed married couples (Mendos & IGLA, 2019, p. 285). Same-sex couples were denied the ability to adopt in Israel in 2018, and the Israeli Child Welfare Services argued ‘that having same-sex parents would be a difficulty for a child due to societal prejudice, tacitly sanctioning and perpetuating societal prejudice towards LGBT people’ (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 139). There was a backlash from LGBTQ civil society organisations, which demanded ‘prevention of violence, legal recognition of same-sex families, and equality in health’ (IGLA, 2019, p. 140). Although there is no legal ban on conversion therapy, the Israel Medical Association’s policy expels practitioners found to use these practices (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). | |||
| Italy | Baiocco, et al. (2010) | Lesbian and Gay youth | |
| Policy context: Italian Decree 216 protected persons from discrimination based on sexual orientation in the workplace in 2003, although broader anti-discrimination protections do not exist. Civil partnerships and cohabitation provided same-sex couples tax, inheritance, and social security rights in Law May 20 no. 76 of 2016. The European Court of Human Rights ruled in Orlandi and Others v. Italy, in 2017, in favour of legally recognizing same-sex marriages performed across national borders (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). | |||
| Portugal | Antonio, et al. (2017) | Santos, et al. (2017) | Inclusivity and homophobic bullying in heterosexual youth |
| Policy context: Law against consensual same-sex acts was not repealed until 1983. The Portuguese Constitution of 2005 includes protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation in Article 13(2), and further anti-discrimination in the workplace protections were passed in 2009. The country legalised same-sex marriage in 2010, and same-sex couples gained full adoption rights in 2016. In 2018, Portugal outlawed non-consensual surgeries on intersex children. In the same year, Portugal played a key role in promoting anti-bullying campaigns in Malaysia during the country’s Universal Periodic Review. (Mendos & ILGA, 2019) | |||
| Namibia | Brown (2017) | Homosexual secondary school students | |
| Policy context: Namibia criminalises anal sex between men. According to the Criminal Procedure Act of 2004, sodomy is grouped with ‘crimes for which police are authorised to make an arrest without a warrant or to use of deadly force in course of that arrest’ (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 355). Human rights organisations have begun to open civil society to address criminalising and discriminatory laws in Namibia, holding advocacy events such as ‘We are One’ in 2017 (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). In spite of legal criminalisation, according to a 2016 survey, Namibia is considered among the most socially tolerant countries in Africa (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). | |||
| Netherlands | Baams, et al. (2014) | Same-sex attracted (SSA) and LGB youth | |
| Policy context: The Equal Treatment Act of 1994 prohibits direct or indirect discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment and in access to goods and services; penal code prohibits hate speech (‘insulting statement’ and ‘incitement of hatred’) based on sexual orientation (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 266). In 1998, Book 1 of the Civil Code provided protection for same-sex partnerships ‘virtually equivalent to marriage’ (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 288), and in 2001 allowed for the joint adoption of children for same-sex couples. | |||
| New Zealand | Martin and D’Augelli (2003)* | Lesbian and Gay youth | |
| Policy context: Criminalisation against same-sex sexual acts was abolished in 1986, and in 2017, the government issued an apology for ‘tremendous hurt and suffering’ inflicted by the policy and expunged convictions (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 165). Discrimination based on sexual orientation is prohibited based on the Human Rights Act of 1993, and government is considering adding the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity. New Zealand outlawed conversion therapy at the national level, and several religious orders have recently taken ‘gay-friendly’ stances. The country passed marriage equality through the Marriage Amendment Act of 2013. Activists from New Zealand joined Australians in the ‘Darlington Statement’ on behalf of human rights for the intersex community in 2017. | |||
| South Africa | Kowen and Davis (2006) | Lesbian youth | |
| Policy context: South Africa became the only country in Africa to recognize same-sex marriage in 2006, and in 2018 legislation prohibited civil servants from opting out of performing same-sex services (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). In 1996, the constitution included protection against discrimination based on sexual orientation and other human rights protections for LGBTI communities. In spite of this, violence against LGBTI groups, such as corrective rape against lesbians and transmen, remains a problem in South Africa. Government, including the Department of Justice and Constitutional Development, and civil society groups established the National Task Team to respond to rapes and other hate crimes against sexual and gender minorities (Mendos & IGLA, 2019; HRW, 2018). A survey conducted in 2016 found that 88% of hate crimes and discrimination go unreported due to fear (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). In 2017, the Limpopo Department of Education was ordered to pay damages to a student for discrimination based on their gender identity (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). | |||
| Taiwan | Chen (2013) | Homosexual male students | |
| Policy context: The Supreme Court in Taiwan called for same-sex marriage to become law within two years in 2017. This process has been challenged by a referendum in 2018 in which Taiwanese voters rejected marriage equality (Mendos & ILGA, 2019; HRW, 2018). Opponents argued that they needed to protect children from the harms of ‘legitimising homosexuality and immorality’ and mounted social media campaigns warning that same-sex marriage would attract HIV-positive people to Taiwan and ‘flood’ the health care system (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 35). Taiwan is among the few countries that has outlawed conversion therapy at the national level (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). The country voted against sexual orientation and gender identity education in schools, although the Gender Equity Education Act of 2004 protects faculty and staff’s sexual orientation in public and private schools (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). | |||
| Thailand |
Van Griensven, et al. (2004) Yadegarfard, et al. (2014)b |
Bisexual and Homosexual adolescents; Male-to-Female Transgender adolescents |
|
| Policy context: Thailand is currently considering legalising same-sex civil unions. In 2007, the Ministry of Labour prohibited discrimination based on ‘personal sexual attitude’ (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 250). UNESCO and Education International have partnered with teachers’ unions in Thailand to survey perceptions on LGBTI rights among teachers. They developed a professional development workshop to train teachers about the impact of bullying and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. They launched a School Climate Assessment tool to determine ‘aspects that are essential for a whole school approach to creating a safe and inclusive learning environment for LGBTI students’ (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 59). | |||
| UK |
McDermott, et al., (2008)b McDermott (2011)b McDermott (2015)b McDermott, Hughes, and Rawlings (2018a, 2018b)b McDermott and Roen (2012)b McDermott, Roen and Piela (2013)b Roen, et al. (2008)b |
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender youth; Queer youth; LGBT youth and heterosexual counterparts in rural and urban areas; LGBT youth contributing to online discussion boards |
|
| Policy Context: The Marriage Act of 2014 affirms the legality of same-sex marriage in England and Wales (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). The Employment Equality Regulations of 2003, and Equality Act Regulations of 2007 and 2010 ban discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment, education, public functions and services (Mendos & ILGA, 2019; McDermott, 2011). The Criminal Justice and Immigration Act of 2008 ‘prohibits the incitement to hatred on the ground of sexual orientation’ (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 267). Recent efforts in Parliament (Conversion Therapy Bill) and in the NHS England and NHS Scotland have moved to ban conversion therapy (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). | |||
| USA |
Baams, et al. (2015) Birkett, et al. (2015)b Day, Perez-Brumer, Russell (2018)b Detrie and Lease (2007) Duong and Bradshaw (2014) Eisenberg and Resnick (2006) Goldbach., et al., (2015) Hatchel and Marx (2018)b Hatzenbuehler, et al., (2012) Hatzenbuehler and Keyes (2013) Martin and D’Augelli (2003)* McConnell, et al. (2015)b Needham and Austin (2010) Poteat, et al., (2015) Poteat and Sheerer (2016)b Ryan, et al. (2010)b Saewyc, et al. (2009)* Seil, et al. (2014) Simons, et al. (2013)b Taliaferro, et al. (2017) Whitaker, et al. (2016) Williams and Chapman (2012) Zimmerman, et al. (2015) |
DiFulvio (2011) Fields, et al. (2015) Gamarel, et al., (2014)b McCormick, et al. (2016)b Muñoz-Laboy, et al. (2009) Paceley (2016)b Porta, et al. (2017)*b Ragg, et al. (2006) Reed and Miller (2016) Romijnders, et al. (2017)b Singh, et al. (2014)b Steinke, et al. (2017)b Theriault, et al. (2014)b |
LGB adolescents and Heterosexual counterparts; LGBT youth; Lesbian and Gay youth; Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Questioning adolescents; Bisexual adolescents; Transgender adolescents; Sexual Minority Youth (SMY); Sexual Minority Women (SMW); High School Students; Gay-Straight Allies and Advisors; Young Black Men who have Sex with Men (MSM); Young Black Gay and Bisexual Men (GBM); LGBTQ Youth of Color; LGBTQ youth in the child welfare system; Bisexual Latino/a Male and Female Youth; Gender and Sexual Minority (GSM) Youth; Trans Youth |
| Policy context: The Mathew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2008 ‘provides for enhanced penalties for crimes motivated by perceived or actual sexual orientation’ (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 259). After the Supreme Court’s decision in Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015, same-sex marriage became legal across the USA, but there is vast variation in how education, employment, housing, and other social determinants of health of LGBTQ people have been protected at the subnational (state) level in the USA (Mendos & ILGA, 2019; HRW, 2018). For example, limitations to transgender inclusivity in gender-segregated public restrooms have challenged school climates (Mendos & ILGA, 2019; HRW, 2018). Large data sets were limited by the inclusion of LGB, but not transgender, youth. | |||
| Vietnam | Horton (2014) | Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual youth | |
| Policy context: The Penal Code of 1999 does not ‘criminalise consensual same-sex sexual acts between adults’ (Mendos & ILGA, 2019, p. 189). Vietnam does not have legal protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, but the government is considering instituting legal protections and improving health access for transgender people (Mendos & ILGA, 2019). | |||
*
Represents a cross-national study
a
Column identifies categories used to classify participants in the studies in each country;
b
Denotes study that includes transgender youth or focuses on transgender experience in its scope.
c
Policy context briefly describes the national and cultural context where studies took place. Most information about policy context is drawn from Huma Rights Watch country profiles and the 2019 ILGA report on state-sponsored homophobia.