FIGURE 2.

Relationship between oxidative stress and CKD-associated cardiovascular disease (CVDs). CKD leads to increased damage of biomolecules (such as lipids, proteins, and DNA), impairment of the antioxidant system, increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), decreased ROS clearance, and high concentration of uremic toxins in circulation. This process increases the levels of oxidative stress. CKD is also associated with systemic inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, loss of proteostasis, altered intercellular communication, and cellular senescence. Combined, these factors contribute to increased levels of oxidative stress in this patient population. However, cellular senescence and inflammation also participate in the development and progression of CVDs.