Fig. 18.

DAMP response. a Uptake of NPs by cell; inflammasome activation by endocytosed NPs can include; b uptake of highly charged particles, opens ion channels resulting K+ efflux to compensate for the charge imbalance activating cathepsin B [129]; c cationic NPs could induce a proton sponge effect which ruptures the lysosomal compartment; d Lysosome rupture releases lysosomal content, e.g. cathepsin B [130, 131]; e Cathepsin B activates NLRP3; f NLRP3 produces mature caspase-1; g caspase-1 converts pro-interleukins such as (IL)1β into mature IL1β; h active IL1β and other cytokines are secreted, which attracts and stimulates a T helper-2 (TH2) response [132]