Table 1.
Non-infectious environmental agents associated with the development of autoimmunity. This table provides examples of several non-infectious agents from a variety of sources, which have been associated with the development of autoimmune disease. AIH, autoimmune hepatitis; AiLD, autoimmune liver disease; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; DM, dermatomyositis; MG, myasthenia gravis; rheumatoid arthritis; SLE, systemic lupus erythematosus; SSc, systemic sclerosis.
| Non-infectious environmental triggers | Disease | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Occupational exposures | ||
| Silica | RA, SLE, SSc, glomerulonephritis, small vessel vasculitis. | [52], [53], [54], [55], [56] |
| Solvents | SLE, AIH | [54], [55], [57], [58] |
| Pesticides | Autoimmune thyroid, RA, SLE, SSc | [59], [60], [61], [62], [63], [64], [65] |
| Ultraviolet radiation | SLE, RA, DM, PM, MS, type 1 diabetes mellitus | [54], [66], [67], [68], [69] |
| Drugs | ||
| Allopurinol | Immune haemolytic anaemia | [70] |
| Captopril | Autoimmune thrombocytopaenia | [71] |
| Chlorpromazine | Anti-phospholipid syndrome, haemolytic anaemia, SLE, AiLD | [72], [73], [74], [75], [76], [77], [78] |
| Estrogens | PBC, SLE, RA | [155], [156], [157], [158], [316], [317], [318], [319], [320] |
| Halothane | AIH | [77], [321], [322] |
| Iodine | Autoimmune thyroid | [62] |
| Penicillins | AiLD, immune haemolytic anaemia | [77], [323] |
| Rifampicin | AIH, autoimmune thyroid, immune haemolytic anaemia | [324], [325], [326] |
| Tetracyclines | AIH, DM, SLE | [79], [327], [328], [329], [330], [331], [332], [333], [334], [335], [336] |
| Miscellaneous | ||
| Vaccines | PBC, AIH, SLE, RA, MS, MG, DM, polyarteritis nodosa, | [279], [337], [338], [339], [340], [341], [342], [343], [344], [345], [346], [347], [348], [349] |
| Cigarette smoke | PBC, COPD, RA, autoimmune thyroid | [155], [156], [157], [158], [350], [351], [352], [353], [354], [355] |
| Collagen/silicone implants | SLE, Sjögren's, SSc | [353], [356], [357], [358], [359], [360], [361], [362] |