Table 2.
Organic Nano-Based Approach for Viral Diagnosis and Inhibition.
| Nanoparticles | Bioactive Compound | Virus | Model Organism | Mechanistic Mode of Action | Purpose | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Polymeric NPs | ||||||
| Poly (D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) NPs | Hemagglutinin (HA) | H1N1 | - | Unaltered molecular weight and antigenicity | Future viral detection and immunization | Lemoine and Préat (1998)100 |
| p-HA | H1N1 | Female Balb/c mice | Enhanced antigen particulate hydrophobicity | Immunization | Lemoine et al (1999)171 | |
| N-Trimethyl chitosan (TMC) NPs | Monovalent influenza (H3N2) subunit vaccine | H3N2 | Female C57BL/6 (B6) mice | Enhanced systemic and local immune responses | Effective carrier for nasal delivery of influenza antigens | Amidi et al (2007)172 |
| Polystyrene NPs | Mannose-specific lectin concanavalin A | HIV-1 | - | Mannose-specific lectin concanavalin A and viral gp120 antigen binding | Mucosal vaccine | Wang et al (2007)173 |
| Poly (ε- caprolactone) (PCL) NPs coated with poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) | Dapivirine | HIV-1 | CaSki, Caco-2, VK2/E6E7, TZM-bl cells, pig tissue models of vaginal and rectal mucosa | NPs differently modulated permeability and monolayer/tissue retention kinetics of dapivirine | Vaccine adjuvant | das Neves et al (2013)102 |
| Chitosan-PEG NPs | Rabies whole attenuated viral antigen | Rabies virus | - | Effective and sustained elicitor of immune system with negligible toxicity | Immunization | Nivedh et al (2016)101 |
| Poly (D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid)-b-poly(ethylene glycol) NPs | ||||||
| Methoxy-poly (ethylene glycol) 3000-poly (lactic acid) 34,000 (MePEG-PLA) NPs |
Nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) DAAN-14f (14f), surface-conjugated with HIV-1 fusion inhibitor T1144 | laboratory adapted HIV-1 strains, primary HIV-1 isolates, NNRTI resistant HIV-1 strains,T1144-resistant HIV-1strains | Sprague–Dawley rats | Viral entry inhibition by inhibition viral attachment, if compromised breach then inhibition of transcriptase | Viral inhibition | Li et al (2016)174 |
| Maleimide-poly (ethylene glycol) 3400-poly (lactic acid) (Mal-PEG–PLA) NPs | ||||||
| Poly(aniline-co-pyrrole) polymerized nanoregulators (PASomes) | - | Influenza A virus (H1N1, H3N2, and H9N2) | MDCK cells | ROS mediated viral replication inhibition and cell death | Antiviral agent | Kim et al (2017)175 |
| Amide functionalised alginate NPs | Zidovudine | HIV | C6 glioma cells, neuro 2a cell lines | Inhibition of viral transcriptase | Effective antiviral delivery | Joshy et al (2017)176 |
| Double-layered protein (Core Matrix protein 2 [M2e] coated with headless Hemagglutinin [HA]) NPs | - | Influenza A virus | BALB/c mice | Viral inhibition by antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity or Antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis and | Universal influenza vaccine with long lasting immunity | Deng et al (2018)104 |
| Double-layered polypeptide (nucleoprotein epitopes at core coated with matrix protein 2 ectodomain epitopes) NPs | - | Influenza A virus | BALB/c strain | CD8+ T cells involved protection against virus | NPs-vaccine | Deng et al (2018)177 |
| Liposome | ||||||
| Nano-liposomes | Acyclovir | - | - | - | Intravenous drug delivery and release | Mukherjee et al (2007)178 |
| Solid lipid NPs | shRNA (Targeting internal ribosome entry site [IRES]) | Hepatitis C virus | Huh-7 cells | Silencing of hepatitis C virus replication | Viral inhibition | Torrecilla et al (2016)137 |
| Solid lipid NPs | Ritonavir | Lentiviral-based pseudo-HIV-1 particles | Human 293T cells | Inhibition of viral protease | Efficient encapsulation, release and antiviral activity | Javan et al (2017)179 |
| Solid lipid NPs modified with gelatin | Zidovudine (AZT) | HIV | MCF-7 and neuro 2a brain cells | Appreciable cellular internalization | Favorable loading, controlled discharge, hemocompatibility and nontoxicity | Joshy et al (2017)103 |
| Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)/stearic acid (SA)-polyethylene glycol (PEG) NPs | AZT | HIV | Murine neuro-2a and HeLa Cells |
Appreciable cellular internalization | Favorable loading, sustained release, hemocompatibility and nontoxicity | Joshy et al (2018)106 |
| Nanostructured nanolipid carriers | Podophyllotoxin (POD) | Human papillomavirus (HPV) | VK2/E6E7 | Cell cycle arrest of virally infected cells at G2/M phase | Sustained release, hemocompatibility, nontoxic viral inhibition | Gao et al (2018)107 |
| Dendrimer | ||||||
| Peptide-derivatized dendrimers | Acyclovir (ACV) | HSV-1,2 | Vero cells, HELFs cells, | Inhibition of viral entry by binding to glycosaminoglycan moiety of cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans, in virto viral replication | Antiviral activity | Luganini et al (2011)110 |
| Dendrimer NPs | mRNA replicons (multiple antigen expressing replicons) | H1N1, Ebola virus | Wild-type female C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice | Activation of both CD8+ T-cell and antibody responses | mRNA-vaccine | Chahal et al (2016)111 |
| Modified dendrimer NPs | Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) replicon RNAs | Zika virus | C57BL/6 mice | Activation of both CD8+ T-cell and viral E protein-specific IgG responses | mRNA-vaccine | Chahal et al (2017)113 |
| Carbosilane dendrimer NA | 16-mer oligoribonucleotide (RNA) decoy (genomic RNA of HIV) | HIV | HIV-infected MT4 lymphocytes | RNA decoy | Inhibition of HIV encapsidation | Parboosing et al (2017)114 |
| Nonlinear globular G2 dendrimer | Citric acid and polyethylene glycol 600 (PEG-600) | Rabies virus | J774A.1 cell line and NMRI mice | - | Adjuvanticity efficacy | Asgary et al (2018)112 |
| Niosome | ||||||
| Nano-niosome | Acyclovir | - | - | - | Intravenous drug delivery and release | Mukherjee et al (2007)178 |
| HSV-1 | HeLa cell line | - | Drug delivery and anti-viral activity | Monavari et al (2014)119 | ||
| - | Improved drug delivery, release, and anti-viral activity | Javad et al (2014)118 | ||||
| Nanomicelle | ||||||
| Polymeric micelle | Efavirenz (EFV) | HIV | Male Wistar rats | - | Improved oral bioavailability | Chiappetta et al (2010)121 |
| Nanomicelle | Curcumine | Hepatitis C Virus | APC49 Huh7.5 cells | Regulation of viral attachment and entry | Improved bioavailability and anti-viral activity | Naseri et al (2017)122 |
| Polymeric nanomicelle | Biotinylated lipid prodrug of cyclic cidofovir (B-C12-cCDF) |
- | D407, HCE-T cells | - | Efficient anti-viral drug delivery | Mandal et al (2017)55 |