Table 3.
List of recent studies in the literature that measure EIs directly from engine or airplane tests. The table also reports studies on hydrocarbon profiles. Some information about tested aircraft and engine models, selected thrust and sampling methodologies and analytical techniques, type of fuel, date and location of experiments is also given.
| Airframe/Engine | Analysed compounds | Sampling and experimental (Sampling system [analytical methods]) | Tested regimes and [fuels] | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| F101 (Military TF with reheat used on the B-1B aircraft); F110 (Military TF with reheat used on the F-16C and F-16D aircraft) | CO2, CO, NOx, total hydrocarbons, individual organic species | Samples collected from each engine using a probe positioned just behind the exhaust nozzle | Four power settings from idle to intermediate power | Spicer et al. (1992) |
| TF-39 (Military TF of Lockheed C-5) and CFM-56 (TF) | CO, NO, NOx, total hydrocarbons, C2 to C17 organics, PAHs, aldehydes | Sampling: sampling rake behind the engine. Experimental: non-dispersive infrared instruments, chemiluminescence, FID, polymeric adsorbent (XAD) and DNPH cartridges[GC/MS, GC/FID], On-Line Cryogenic Trap/GC, canister [GC/MS], Total Hydrocarbon Analyzer | Idle, 30%, 80%; [JP-4; JP-5; JP-8] | Spicer et al., 1984, Spicer et al., 1994 |
| PW 305 (TF in small business jets) | N2O, CH4 | Sampling: gas samples collected in the core of the engine without any bypass air. Experimental: infrared absorption spectroscopy | 5.5%; 23.5%; 33.4%; 71.4%; 95.6% | Wiesen et al. (1994) |
| Various military aircraft: T56-A-7; TF39-GE-1C; GTCP85-180; GTCP-165-1; T700-GE-700; J69-T-25; J85-GE-5A; F110-GE-100; F108-CF-100; TF33-P-7/7A; F101-GE-102; TF33-P-102; F117-PW-100; AFB F118-GE-100; F404-GE-F102/400; F110-GE-129; F100-PW-100; F100-PW-229; T64-GE-100; TF34-GE-100A (All Military) | CO2; CO; NOx; NMHCs; Aldehydes and ketones; VOCs; filterable and condensable particulate | Sampling: various test cells, hush house exhaust rate determined using three methods: carbon balance, tracer gas and F-factor. Experimental: various US-EPA' methods, including continuous emissions monitoring system; canister [GC/MS; GC/FID]; HI-VOL [lab analysis] | Idle; Approach; Intermediate; Military; Afterburner; [JP-8] | Gerstle et al. (1999) |
| Research aircraft: VFW-Fokker 614 ATTAS. Engine: Rolls-Royce/SNECMA M45H Mk501 (TF) | Aerosol size distribution and chemical composition (total carbon, BC) | Sampling: ground-based measurements (also report in-flight measurements). Experimental: filter substrates[thermal technique], PCASP-100X | Different engine thrust levels: idle run and take-off | Petzold and Schröder, 1998, Petzold et al., 1999 |
| Fighter aircraft: F-22 Raptor (Military); Engine: F119-PW-100 (TF with reheat) | CO2; CO; NOx; NMHCs; Filterable and condensable particulate; Aldehydes and ketones; VOCs | Sampling: engine exhaust sampling rake system; augmentor tube slipstream sampling system. Experimental: various US-EPA' methods: continuous emissions monitoring system; canister [GC/MS; GC/FID]; HI-VOL [lab analysis] | Idle (10%); approach (20%); Intermediate (70%); Military (100%); Afterburner (150%); [JP-8] | Gerstle et al. (2002) |
| NASA Boeing 757; Engine: RB-211-535E4 (TF) | CO2, H2O, HONO, HNO3, SO2, SO3, H2SO4, nonmethane hydrocarbons, aerosol size, BC | Sampling: 1 m down steam of the turbine exhaust, aerosol-sampling probe was also affixed to the blast fence 25 m downstream of the engine exhaust plane. Experimental: IR spectrometer, DMA, OPC, aethalometer, grab samples, tunable diode laser, AMS | A range of power settings from idle to near take-off thrust; [JP-5, low and high S (810 and 1820 ppm S)] | EXCAVATE: Anderson et al., 2005, Anderson et al., 2006 |
| Jet trainer: T-38A Talon; Engine: 85-GE-5A (TJ) | CO2, aerosol size, BC, nonmethane hydrocarbons, SO2, CO2, SO3, H2O, HONO, H2SO4, HONO, HNO3 | Sampling: 1 m down steam of the turbine exhaust. Experimental: IR spectrometer, DMA and OPC, aethalometer, grab samples, tunable diode laser, AMS | A range of power settings from idle to near take-off thrust; [JP-5 (810 ppm S)] | EXCAVATE: Anderson et al. (2005) |
| Fighter: F-18 (Military). Engine: F404-GE-400 in twin-engine (TF with reheat) | Particle mass concentration, PAHs, BC | Sampling: Navy jet engine exhaust emissions from tethered aircraft, measurements at a site on the active flightline tarmac, directly from the exhausts of tethered aircraft. Experimental: DustTrak particle mass monitor, PAS, photoacoustic analyzer, Gundel denuder sampler (with PUF/XAD/PUF “sandwich” cartridges), SMPS, MOUDI cascade impactor | Power-setting increases from 65% to 70%, and from 70% to 80% | Rogers et al. (2005) |
| Engine: dismounted T700-GE-401 (TS), which is fitted in Seahawk, Super Cobra, and Jayhawk helicopters (Military) | Particle mass concentration, PAHs, BC | Sampling: Navy jet engine exhaust emissions from engine maintenance test cells, measurements at Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department facility. Experimental: DustTrak particle mass monitor, PAS, photoacoustic analyzer, Gundel denuder sampler (with PUF/XAD/PUF “sandwich” cartridges), SMPS, MOUDI cascade impactor | Power-setting increases from idle to 98% | Rogers et al. (2005) |
| NASA Boeing 757; Engine: RB211-535-E4 (TF) | Gaseous carbon species | Sampling: 10 m behind the engine exit plane. Experimental: Canister, analyses of whole air samples [GC/FID, GC/ECD, GC/MS] | 4–7%; 26%; 47%; 61%; [JP-5 low and high S] | EXCAVATE: Anderson et al. (2006) |
| Bell helicopter; UH-1H (TS) | 22 PAHs | Sampling: engine placed in a testing chamber, exhaust samples collected from the stack of the chamber using an isokinetic sampling system. Experimental: GC/MS | Five power settings: idle (50%), fly idle (67%), beed band check (79%), inlet guide vane (95%), and takeoff (100%); [JP-4] | Chen et al. (2006) |
| Military jet fighters: F-15 Eagle and the F-16 Falcon aircraft. Engines: PW F-100-PW-100 (TF with reheat) | Automatic measurements: CO2, CO, NO, NO2, total hydrocarbons | Sampling: extractive sampling at 23 m behind the exhaust exit plane for tests at idle through military power, and at 38 m for afterburner tests; optical remote sensing measurements 23 m behind the engine exit plane. Experimental: automatic measurements; canisters [GC/MS]; DNPH-coated cartridges [HPLC/UV detector]; OP-FTIR; UV-DOAS | Ground idle (65–70%), low intermediate (80%), high intermediate (85%), military (91–93%) and afterburner (reheat); [JP-8+100] | Cowen et al. (2009) |
| Aircraft: Boeing DC-8. Engine: CFM-56-2C1 (TF) | CO, CO2, NO, NO2, HONO, total VOCs, gas-phase speciated hydrocarbons, particle number concentration, particle size distribution, PM2.5 [mass, EC/OC, SVOCs, inorganic ions, elemental composition] | Sampling: the exhaust plume was sampled at 1, 10 and 30 m downstream of the engines. Experimental: continuous and time-integrated instruments: IR absorption, TILDAS, PTR-MS, AMS, canister [GC/MS, GC/FID], DNPH cartridges [HPLC], TEOM, CPC, SMPS, DMA, PM-2.5 cyclones [47 mm PTFE filter], PM-2.5 cyclones [47 mm QFF + PUF], ELPI, aethalometer, PAH analyzer; lab analyses on filters and PUF [GC/MS, TOA@NIOSH, ion chromatography, XRF] | “EPA test matrix” (typical LTO); “NASA test matrix” including 11 power settings; [3 fuels: base fuel, high sulphur (1639 ppm), high aromatic] | APEX-1: Wey et al., 2006, Knighton et al., 2007, Wormhoudt et al., 2007, Yelvington et al., 2007, Wong et al., 2008; Onasch et al. (2009); Kinsey (2009) |
| Aircraft: B737-700; B737-300. Engines: CFM56-7B24, CFM56-3B1, CFM56-3B2 (all TF) | CO2, gas-phase speciated hydrocarbons, particle number concentration, particle size distribution, PM2.5 [mass, EC/OC, SVOCs, inorganic ions, elemental composition, PAHs] | Sampling: on-wing at the ground run-up enclosure; 1, 30 and 54 m from the exhaust nozzle exit. Experimental: continuous and time-integrated instruments: IR absorption, canister [GC/MS, GC/FID], DNPH cartridges [HPLC], TEOM, CPC, SMPS, EEPS, DMA, PM-2.5 cyclones [47 mm PTFE filter, 47 mm QFF + PUF], ELPI, aethalometer, PAH analyzer; lab analyses on filters and PUF [GC/MS, TOA@NIOSH, ion chromatography, XRF], AMS | 4%, 7%, 30%, 40%, 65%, 85%; [Jet-A] | APEX-2: Agrawal et al., 2008, Kinsey, 2009, Timko et al., 2010b, Timko et al., 2010c |
| Aircraft: B737-300, Embraer ERJ-145, A300, B775, plus Learjet Model 25. Engines: CFM56-3B1, AE3007A1E, AE3007A1/1, PW4158, RB211-535E4-B (all TF), plus CJ610-8ATJ (TJ) | CO2, gas-phase speciated hydrocarbons, particle number concentration, particle size distribution, PM2.5 [mass, EC/OC, SVOCs, inorganic ions, elemental composition] | Sampling: the exhaust plume was sampled at a location 1, and 30 m downstream of the engines (sometimes at 15 and 43 m); Sampling was done at the centre-line using a single probe. Experimental: continuous and time-integrated instruments: IR absorption, TILDAS, quantum cascade-TILDAS, canister [GC/MS, GC/FID], DNPH cartridges [HPLC], TEOM, CPC, SMPS, EEPS, DMA, PM-2.5 cyclones [47 mm PTFE filter, 47 mm QFF + PUF], ELPI, aethalometer, PAH analyzer; lab analyses on filters and PUF [GC/MS, TOA@NIOSH, ion chromatography, XRF], AMS | 4%, 7%, 15%, 30%, 45%, 65%, 85%, 100% [slightly varying for some engines, see Kinsey (2009)]; [Jet-A] | APEX-3: Knighton et al., 2007, Kinsey, 2009, Timko et al., 2010b, Timko et al., 2010c |
| Military helicopters: Blackhawk, Apache: T700-GE-700 and T700-GE-701C (TS) | CO2, H2O, CO, NO, and N2O (FTIR); particle number, mass and size distributions, smoke number (automatic); elements, ions, EC, OC (on PM filters) | Sampling: extractive sampling at the engine nozzle, plus extractive sampling (4.14 m) and remote-sensing at a predetermined distance downstream of the engine exhaust plane. Experimental: FTIR, TDLAS, UV DOAS, OP-FTIR; CPC, DMA, SMPS, TEOM, smoke machine, sandwiched PM1 impaction-style sampler [XRF, ion chromatography, TOA@NIOSH] | Idle, 75%, max; [JP-8, FT] | Cheng, 2009, Cheng et al., 2009, Cheng and Corporan, 2010 |
| Military transport (cargo) aircraft: Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Engine: T56-A-15 (TP) | CO2, H2O, CO, NO, and N2O (FTIR); particle number, mass and size distributions, smoke number (automatic); elements, ions, EC, OC (on PM filters) | Sampling: at the engine exit plane and at 5 and 15 m downstream of the engine exit. Experimental: remote sensing: FTIR, TDLAS, UV DOAS, OP-FTIR; Extractive measurements: on-line gas analyzer, cross-filter correlation spectroscopy, chemiluminescence, CPC, SMPS, TEOM, smoke machine, PM1 sampler [XRF, ion chromatography, carbon analyzer] | Low speed ground idle (4%); high speed ground idle (7%); flight idle (20%); cruise (41%); max (100%); [JP-8, FT] | Cheng et al., 2008, Corporan et al., 2008, Cheng, 2009, Cheng and Corporan, 2010 |
| Military bomber: B-52. Engine: TF33-P-3/103 (TF) | CO2, H2O, CO, NO, and N2O (FTIR); particle number, mass and size distributions, smoke number (automatic); elements, ions, EC, OC (on PM filters) | Sampling: extractive sampling at the engine nozzle, plus extractive sampling and remote-sensing at a predetermined distance downstream of the engine exhaust plane. Experimental: FTIR, TDLAS, UV DOAS, OP-FTIR; CPC, SMPS, TEOM, smoke machine, PM1 sampler [XRF, ion chromatography, carbon analyzer] | TF33 (idle, 80%, 90%, 95%); [JP-8, FT] | Cheng, 2009, Cheng and Corporan, 2010 |
| Update and consolidation of the existing HAPs profile using data from Spicer et al. (1994), EXCAVATE and APEXs campaigns | Hydrocarbons, EIs and profiles (mass fraction) | Data analysis | Various | Knighton et al. (2009) |
| Military transport (cargo) aircraft: Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Engine: Allison T56 (TP) | CO2, CO, NOx, total hydrocarbons, organic gases including carbonyls | Experimental: non-dispersive IR, cross-filter correlation spectroscopy, chemiluminescence, FID, PTR-MS, canister [GC/MS], DNPH cartridges [HPLC] | Low speed ground idle, High speed ground idle, Flight idle Cruise, Maximum power; [JP-8] | Spicer et al. (2009) |
| Jet fighter: F-15. Engine: PW F100-PE-100 (TF with reheat) | CO2, CO, NOx, total hydrocarbons, organic gases including carbonyls | Experimental: non-dispersive IR, cross-filter correlation spectroscopy, chemiluminescence, FID, PTR-MS, canister [GC/MS], DNPH cartridges [HPLC] | Idle, Low intermediate, High intermediate, Military, Afterburner; [JP8+100] |
Spicer et al. (2009) |
| Summary of the APEX1‒3 campaigns: CFM56-2C1, CFM56-7B24, CFM56-3B1, CFM56-3B2, AE3007A1E, AE3007A1/1, P&W 4158, RB211-535E4-B (all TF), and CJ610-8ATJ (TJ) | Physical and chemical characterisation of PM; PM mass, particle number concentrations and size, BC, surface-bound PAHs; inorganic ions, EC, OC, SVOCs, elements | As for APEX1‒3 campaigns | LTO and others | Kinsey et al., 2010, Kinsey et al., 2011 |
| Pratt & Whitney; PW three high-bypass TF, representing two different distinct engine model types | Total particulate mass, chemical composition and size distributions of the emitted oil | Sampling: Particulate matter emitted from the lubrication system overboard breather vent with a self-designed collecting and diluting apparatus. Experimental: C-TOF AMS, TEOM, engine exhaust particle sizer, CPC and ultra high sensitivity aerosol spectrometer | Cycles from idle to 65–70% thrust | Yu et al. (2010) |
| NASA DC-8; CFM56-2C1 (TF) | CO2, CO, NOx, SO2, CH4, N2O, HONO, total and speciated hydrocarbons, hazardous air pollutants; particle measurements included number density, size distribution, mass, aerosol chemical composition, and black carbon composition | Sampling: from inlet probes positioned 1 and 30 m downstream of the aircraft's engines; aged plumes at 145 m away from the engine output in the direction of the predominant wind, 1.3 m above the ground. Experimental: NDIR, CPC, SMPS, EEPS, DMS, MAAP, PAS 2000, AMS, CCN, TILDAS, PTR-MS, conventional gas analyzers, TEOM | 7 thrusts: LTO +4%(idle); 45%(approach); 65%(cruise); [JP-8, FT (Shell), FT (Sasol)] | AAFEX: Anderson et al., 2011, Santoni et al., 2011 |
| KC-135T Stratotanker (Military); CFM56-2B1 (TF) | CO2, CO,O2, NOx, total hydrocarbon; PM, particle number concentration and size (after exhausts dilution in smog chamber) | Sampling: exhaust sampled using a rake inlet installed 1 m downstream of the engine exit plane; a dilution sampler and portable smog chamber were also used. Experimental: five-gas exhaust gas analyzer; canister [GC/MS], PM2.5 cyclone[QFF and PTFE filters, Tenax TA sorbent, GC/MS, OC/EC analyzer], SMPS, AMS | 4%, 7%, 30%, 85%; [JP-8] | Presto et al., 2011, Miracolo et al., 2011 |
| Helicopters; Allison T63-A-700 (TS) | CO2, CO, NOx, CH4, and C2H4, unburned hydrocarbons, number and size of particles, BC | Samples were extracted from the engine exit plane via temperature-controlled probes, charcoal tubes, DNPH tubes; NDIR, FTIR, FID, CPC, SMPS, MAAP, GC/MS | 3% (low-speed idle), 7% (high-speed idle), 15% (intermediate), 85% (cruise); [JP-8, a synthetic paraffinic kerosene, and four two-component surrogate mixtures] | Cain et al. (2013) |
Used acronyms: AMS = aerosol mass spectrometer; BAM = beta-attenuation mass monitor; CPC = condensation particle counter; C-TOF AMS = time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer; DMA = differential mobility analyser; EEPS = engine exhaust particle sizer; ELPI = electrical low pressure impactor; FTIR = Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; GC/ECD = gas chromatography/electron capture detector; GC/FID = gas chromatography/flame ionization detector; GC/MS = gas chromatography/mass spectrometry; HI-VOL = high volume PM sampler; LIDAR = laser interferometry detection and ranging; MAAP = multi-angle absorption photometer; NDIR = non-dispersive infrared spectroscopy; OPC = optical particle counting and photometry; OP-FTIR = open-path Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; PAS = photoelectric aerosol sensor; PTFE = Teflon; PTR-MS = proton-transfer reaction mass spectrometry; QFF = quartz fibre filter; SEM/EDX = scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy; SMPS = scanning mobility particle sizer spectrometer; TDLAS = tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy; TEOM = tapered element oscillating microbalance; TF = turbofan; TILDAS = tunable infrared differential absorption spectroscopy; TJ = turbojet; TOA = thermo-optical OC–EC analyzer (@used method); TP = turpoprop; TS = turboshaft; UV-DOAS = UV differential optical absorption spectroscopy; VOC = volatile organic compounds; XRF = X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy.