Table 2.

Mechanisms of NSVs to counteract RLR signalling.

Interference with	Viral protein or function	Virus	Mechanism	References
RLR sensing	ssRNA encapsidation	all NSVs	Prevents dsRNA formation	[35], [36]
	dsRNA unwinding by cellular helicases UAP56 and URH49	FLUAV, VSV	Prevents dsRNA formation	[50], [51]
	Recruitment of La	ns-NSVs	Prevents RIG-I recognition of viral leader RNA	[39]
	Regulation of RNA synthesis by viral proteins or promoter sequences	ns-NSVs, FLUAV	Prevents formation of aberrant RNAs	[45], [52], [53], [54], [55], [56], [57]
	Nuclear replication	FLUAV	Hiding from cytoplasmic RLRs	[44]
	VP35	EBOV, MARV	dsRNA binding	[60], [61]
	NS1	FLUAV	dsRNA binding	[59], [62]
	Cleavage of the 5′ppp RNA end to 5′p	Bornaviridae, Hantaviruses, CCHFV	Prevents RIG-I activation	[67], [68]
	Genome RNA 5′overhang	Arenaviridae	Disturbs RIG-I function	[71]
	dsRNA degradation by nucleocapsid protein	Lassa virus	Removes dsRNA	[72], [73]
RLR signalling	NS2	RSV	Interacts with RIG-I to prevent association with MAVS	[75]
	Z	New World Arenaviruses	Interacts with RIG-I to prevent association with MAVS	[74]
	OTU domain	Nairoviruses (Bunyaviridae)	De-ubiquitinylates RIG-I	[76], [77]
	V	Paramyxoviruses	Wedges into MDA5 structure to prevent formation of signalling-competent filaments	[78], [79]
	VP35	EBOV	Sequesters the RIG-I cofactor PACT	[64]
	V	Paramyxoviruses	Assemble RIG-I and LGP2 into a refractory complex	[80]
	NS1	FLUAV	Interacts with TRIM25 to counteract ubiquitinylation of RIG-I	[63]
	Upregulation of Siglec-G by unknown mechanism	VSV, SeV (NSVs in general?)	Ubiquitin-mediated RIG-I degradation	[81]
	NSs	TOSV	Ubiquitin-mediated RIG-I degradation	[82]
	N and P	RSV	Recruitment of MDA5, MAVS, and RIG-I into inclusion bodies	[83]
	NSs	SFTSV	Relocalization of RIG-I, TRIM25, TBK1, IKKɛ and IRF3 into inclusion bodies	[84], [85]
	NS1 and NS2	RSV	Formation of degradosome to destroy MAVS and IRFs	[86]
	PB1, PB2, PA, PB1-F2	FLUAV	Impairment of MAVS signalling	[87], [88], [89], [90], [91]
	Nucleocapsid protein	Arenaviruses, hantaviruses	Prevention of TBK1 or IKKɛ activation	[93], [96]
	Gn	Hantaviruses	Prevention of TBK1 action	[95]
	P	BDV and Rabies	Prevention of TBK1 action	[92], [97]
	V	Paramyxoviruses	Prevention of TBK1 activation	[94]
	VP35	EBOV	Prevents interactions of TBK1 and IKKɛ with IRFs	[66]
	VP35	EBOV	Inhibits IRF7 function by enhancing its SUMOylation via the cellular E3 ligase PIAS1	[98]
	ML	THOV	Blocks IRF3 and IRF7 dimerization and association with CBP, TRAF6 and the general transcription factor IIB	[99], [100]
	V	Paramyxoviruses	Interact with IRF3 and impair nuclear translocation.	[101]
	W	NiV	Inhibits activation of the IFN-β promoter	[102]
	NSs	RVFV	Recruits repression factor SAP30 to inhibit IFN-β transcription	[103]
Host cell gene expression	Cap-snatching	s-NSVs	Destruction of host cell mRNAs by viral endonuclease function	[108]
	PA-X	FLUAV	Separate endonuclease domain, suppresses antiviral host cell responses	[109]
	NS1	FLUAV	Interferes with processing, nuclear export and translation of host mRNAs	[8]
	M	VSV	Interferes with nuclear export of host mRNAs	[110]
	NSs	RVFV	Disturbs assembly of TFIIH	[111]
	NSs	RVFV	Promotes degradation of the TFIIH subunit p62 via the E3 ubiquitin ligase FBXO3.	[112], [113]
	NSs	BUNV	Inhibits phosphorylation of the RNA polymerase II subunit RPB1	[114]
	NSs	LACV	Drives proteasomal degradation of RPB1	[115]