Fig. 2.

Combining oncolytic viral therapy with immune modulators. (A) Weak immunogenic tumor cells in an immunosuppressive TME are infected by oncolytic viruses (green) armed with immune modulators. (B) Tumor cells start secreting viral induced cytokines and chemokines, but also the immune modulators, which improves the immune activation. As a result, immune cells start to infiltrate the TME. (C) Occasionally, the virus will induce an immunogenic cell death. The TAAs and immune stimulating environment will result in the maturation of APCs. (D) The APCs will activate the adaptive immune system upon which T cells will start infiltrating the tumor attracted by the secreted chemokines. Possible activity of immune suppressive ligands, such as PD-L1, will be prevented by the circulating immune checkpoint inhibitors resulting in clearance of the tumor.