TABLE 1.

Overview of TNTs and TNT-like structures triggered by different viruses^a

Virus	Viral protein involved	Infected cells	Cell type(s)	Microtubules	Spread in presence of virus-neutralizing antibodies	Virus particles visualized in or on TNT-like structures by EM	Reference(s)
Retroviruses
HIV-1	Nef	Yes	Macrophages	Yes	Yes	Yes (TEM)	42, 43, 45
HIV-1 and MLV	Env	Yes	Cos-1, XC and HEK293	No	No	Yes (SEM)	53
HTLV-1	p8	Yes	p8-overexpressing Jurkat, MT-2 and primary T cells	No	NDb	Yes (TEM)	51
Herpesviruses
Alphaherpesviruses
PRV	US3	Yes	ST, RK13, MEF	Yes	Yes	Yes (TEM)	17, 56, 62
HSV-2	US3	ND	Vero	Yes	ND	ND	66
BoHV-1	US3 (in transduced cells)	Yes	MDBK, KOP, primary bovine fibroblasts	Yes	Yes	ND	65, 71
BoHV-5	US3	ND	ST, Vero	ND	ND	ND	67
Gammaherpesviruses
MHV-68	gp48/ORF58	Yes	NIH 3T3, BHK-21	No	ND	ND	73
EBV	BDLF2/BMRF2	ND	Cos7, 293T, HeLa	No	ND	ND	72
Alphaviruses
SINV, SFV, CHIKV	Structural proteins (SFV)	Yes	Vero, primary HUVEC	Yes	Yes	Possibly (SEM)	75
Pneumoviruses
HMPV	P (transfected cells)	Yes	BEAS-2B, A549	Yes	Yes	ND	76
Poxviruses
VV	F11	Yes	BS-C-1, Vero, PtK2	ND	ND	ND	77–80
Orthomyxoviruses
IAV	ND	Yes	MDCK, Vero, A549	ND	Yes	ND	81, 82
Paramyxoviruses
PIV5	ND	Yes	MDCK, Vero, A549	ND	Yes	ND	81
MeV	ND	Yes	Astrocytoma cells	ND	ND	ND	83
Nidoviruses
PRRSV	ND	Yes	MARC-145	Yes	Yes	ND	84, 85
Flaviviruses
WNV	NS1 (transfected cells)	Yes	Vero, SH-SY5Y, U-87MG	ND	ND	ND	86
Arenaviruses
LCMV	ND	Yes	HeLa	ND	ND	ND	88
Picornaviruses
CVB3	ND	Yes	GMK	Yes	Yes	ND	89
Reoviruses
RDV	Pns10 (transduced cells)	Yes	NC-24 and Sf9 insect cells	ND	Yes	ND	90, 91
RBSDV	P7-1 (transduced cells)	Yes	Sf9 insect cells	ND	ND	ND	92, 93

^aMore detailed information can be found in the text. TEM, transmission electron microscopy; SEM, scanning electron microscopy.

^bND, not determined.