Table 2.

Brief summary of known interactions between autophagy and viral infections.

Virus	Known interaction(s) with autophagy	Key references
Adenovirus	Contradictory results; autophagy may enhance or detract from engineered adenovirus-induced cell death; differences possibly cell-type/virus-specific.	Ito et al., 2006, Baird et al., 2008
Coronavirus	Contradictory evidence. May induce or subvert autophagy membrane remodeling. Autophagy may enhance viral replication.	Prentice et al., 2004a, Zhao et al., 2007
Coxsackievirus	Autophagosome formation enhances CVB3/CVB4 replication in vitro. Autophagy affects virally induced apoptosis.	Wong et al., 2008, Yoon et al., 2008
Cytomegalovirus	Inhibits autophagy through unidentified mechanism.	Chaumorcel et al. (2008)
Dengue virus	Induces autophagy. Disruption reduces corresponding viral titers. Membrane co-localization observed with serotype-specific differences.	Lee et al., 2008, Panyasrivanit et al., 2009, Khakpoor et al., 2009
Drosophila C virus	Induces formation of COPI-dependent vesicles. Interactions with autophagy mechanism unknown.	Cherry et al. (2006)
Enterovirus 71	Induces/co-localizes with autophagic membranes. Induction increases viral titer. Mechanism unclear.	Huang et al. (2009)
Epstein–Barr virus	Autophagy may aid EBV MHC-II antigen presentation, but contradictory evidence exists. Possibly part of proliferation regulation.	Paludan et al., 2005, Lee and Sugden, 2008
Hepatitis B virus	Encodes transcriptional transactivator HBx, resulting in increased expression of Beclin-1. Sensitizes cells to autophagy signals.	Tang et al. (2009)
Hepatitis C virus	Induces autophagy; inhibits maturation. Knockdown of autophagy genes or ER stress response limits replication. Autophagy may aid HCV antigen presentation/TLR detection in some cell types.	Sir et al., 2008, Dreux et al., 2009
Herpes simplex virus type I	Viral encoded ICP34.5 antagonizes pathway through inhibition of PKR/eIF2a induction, as well as Beclin-1 binding. Autophagy effects of minimal importance in vitro, but essential for neurovirulence in vivo.	Tallóczy et al., 2006, Alexander et al., 2007, Orvedahl et al., 2007; English et al. (2009)
Human immunodeficiency virus	Autophagy-related mechanism part of envelope protein-induced bystander T cell death and HIV dementia. Pathway dysregulated in some infected cell types, but some components identified as necessary host co-factors.	Espert et al., 2006, Alirezaei et al., 2008, Zhou and Spector, 2008, Espert et al., 2009, Kyei et al., 2009
Influenza virus	Induces autophagosome formation; inhibits maturation. Interference decreases viral yield. May enhance MHC-II antigen presentation.	Gannagé et al., 2009, Zhou et al., 2009
Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus	Encodes viral homolog of Bcl-2 that inhibits autophagy through binding interactions with Beclin-1's BH3 domain. Viral FLIP suppresses autophagy through inhibition of Atg3.	Pattingre et al., 2005, Ku et al., 2008, Lee et al., 2009
Parvovirus	Induces formation of autophagosome-like vesicles, possibly to extend host cell survival during viral replication process.	Nakashima et al. (2006)
Poliovirus	Induces formation of double-membrane, LC3-positive vesicles. Aids viral replication and release. Viral 2BC protein triggers LC3 lipidation.	Jackson et al., 2005, Taylor and Kirkegaard, 2007
Rhinovirus	Does not induce or modulate autophagy. Replication unaffected by induction or inhibition of pathway.	Jackson et al., 2005, Brabec-Zaruba et al., 2007
Sendai virus	In pDCs, autophagy enhances delivery of viral nucleic acids to endosomes for TLR7 recognition.	Lee et al. (2007)
Sindbis virus	In vivo up-regulation of autophagy via Beclin-1 over-expression reduces fatal encephalitis in mice.	Liang et al. (1998)
Tobacco mosaic virus	Autophagy necessary to restrict virally induced programmed cell death responses to the site of infection.	Liu et al. (2005)
Vaccinia virus	Induces vesicle formation, but mechanism independent of autophagy.	Zhang et al. (2006)
Varicella-zoster virus	Induces autophagy. Role in infection unclear.	Takahashi et al. (2009)
Vesicular stomatitis virus	Autophagy enhances endocytic detection in pDCs, but may diminish cytosolic detection/antiviral responses in other cell types.	Jounai et al., 2007, Lee et al., 2007; Shelly et al. (2009)