Table 1.
Summary of Antarctic bird- and mammal-associated viruses detected through serological approaches.
|
Virus taxonomy |
Notes |
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ID | Order | family | genus | Virus | Host | Method | Sample | Location | Year of collection | Reference |
| 1 | Mononegavirales | Paramyxoviridae | Avulavirus | Avian paramyxovirus | Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) | Hemagglutination-inhibition, immunodiffusion tests, morphology |
2/42 serum samples with antibodies to NDV, cloacal swabs |
Wilkes base |
– |
Morgan and Westbury (1981) |
| 2 | Hemagglutination-inhibition, immunodiffusion tests, morphology |
serum, 2 APMV viruses isolated from 550 cloacal swabs |
Peterson Island, Midgley Island, Shirley Island, Cameron Island, d'Urville (Casey station) |
– |
Morgan and Westbury (1981) |
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| 3 | Virus isolation, Haemagglutination test |
Serum samples and cloacal swabs |
Vestfold Hills |
December 1981 |
Morgan and Westbury (1988) |
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| 4 | Indirect ELISA, electron microscopy |
Cloacal swab, serum |
Ross Island |
1978 |
Austin and Webster (1993) |
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| 5 | Royal penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus) |
Hemagglutination-inhibition, immunodiffusion tests, morphology |
Cloacal samples |
Macquarie Island |
– |
Morgan et al. (1981) |
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| 5 | King penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus) |
Hemagglutination-inhibition, immunodiffusion tests, morphology |
Cloaca samples |
Macquarie Island |
– |
Morgan et al. (1981) |
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| 7 | South Polar skua (Stercorarius maccormicki) | Indirect ELISA, electron microscopy |
Serum |
Ross Island |
1978, 1986 |
Austin and Webster (1993) |
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| 8 | Haemagglutination-inhibition test |
Serum samples and cloacal swabs |
Davis station |
November/December 1999 |
Miller et al. (2008) |
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| 9 | Morbillivirus | Canine distemper virus | Leopard seal (Hydrurda leptonyx) |
CDV-like antibodies detected through microneutralization test using two CDV strains and a phocine distemper virus isolate |
2/3 serum samples tested positive |
Antarctic peninsula |
1989 |
Bengtson et al. (1991) |
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| 10 | Crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophaga) | CDV-like antibodies detected through microneutralization test using two CDV strains and a phocine distemper virus isolate | 35% serum samples tested positive for CDV | Antarctic peninsula | January/March 1989 | Bengtson et al. (1991) | ||||
| 11 | Unassigned | Orthomyxoviridae | Influenzavirus | Influenza A virus | Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) | Hemagglutination-inhibition, immunodiffusion tests |
Serum |
Peterson Island (Casey) |
– |
Morgan et al. (1981) |
| 12 | Hemagglutination-inhibition, Neuraminidase-inhibition tests |
Serum |
Ross Island |
1978 |
Austin and Webster (1993) |
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| 13 | Hemagglutination-inhibition test against H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, and H7N2 antigens |
Serum |
Hope Bay |
December–March, 1998, 2001, and 2002 |
Baumeister et al. (2004) |
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| 14 | South Polar skua (Stercorarius maccormicki) | Indirect ELISA, Hemagglutination-inhibition tests |
Serum |
Ross Island |
1978, 1986 |
Austin and Webster (1993) |
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| 15 | Capture ELISA |
Serum and cloacal swabs |
Davis station |
November/December 1999 |
Miller et al. (2008) |
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| 16 | Hemagglutination inhibition test against H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, and H7N2 antigens |
Serum |
Potter peninsula and Hope Bay |
December–March, 1998, 2001, and 2002 |
Baumeister et al. (2004) |
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| 17 | Chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica) |
Hemagglutination inhibition test against H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, and H7N2 antigens |
Serum |
Potter peninsula |
December-March, 1998, 2001, and 2002 |
Baumeister et al. (2004) |
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| 18 | Gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) | Hemagglutination inhibition test against H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, and H7N2 antigens |
Serum |
Potter peninsula |
December-March, 1998, 2001, and 2002 |
Baumeister et al. (2004) |
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| 19 | Influenzavirus type A virus antibody ELISA kit |
Bird Island |
1996 |
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| 20 | Giant petrel (Macronectes giganteus) |
Hemagglutination inhibition test against H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, and H7N2 antigens |
Serum |
Potter peninsula and Harmony peninsula |
December–March, 1998, 2001, and 2002 |
Baumeister et al. (2004) |
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| 21 | Birnaviridae | Avibirnavirus | Infectious bursal disease virus | Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) | Virus neutralization tests, IBDV serotype 1 and 2 antibodies |
High titer of neutralizing antibodies detected in 2.6% or 133 penguins |
Mawson station |
1995/96 summer |
Gardner et al. (1997) |
|
| 22 | Virus neutralization tests to measure antibody titers to IBDV serotype 1 |
Seroprevalence 7.7%, no significant difference between locations or years. Highly significant titres were obtained from 1.8% of birds |
Mawson coast, Davis Coast, Terra Nova Bay |
November–February 1996-2002 |
Watts et al. (2009) |
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| 23 | Emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) | Virus neutralization tests, IBDV serotype 1 and 2 antibodies |
High titer of neutralizing antibodies detected in 65.4% of 53 penguins |
Mawson station |
1995/96 summer |
Gardner et al. (1997) |
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| 24 | Virus neutralization tests to measure antibody titers to IBDV serotype 1 |
Auster Rookery, Amanda Bay rookery, Cape Washington rookery |
November–February 1996–2001 |
Watts et al. (2009) |
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| 25 | King penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus) |
Virus neutralization tests, IBDV serotype 1 and 2 antibodies, cough and conjunctivitis clinical signs |
Serum of adults and chicks |
sub-Antarctic Iles Crozet |
November 1996-February 1997 |
Gauthier-Clerc et al. (2002) |
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| 26 | South Polar skua (Stercorarius maccormicki) | Antibody neutralization test |
Serum and cloacal swab |
Davis station |
November/December 1999 |
Miller et al. (2008) |
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| 27 | Virus neutralization tests to measure antibody titers to IBDV serotype 1 |
Antibodies detected in 11.8% of individuals, Significant difference in prevalence between sample years |
Vestfolds, Davis station |
November–February 1999–2002 |
Watts et al. (2009) |
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| 28 | Flaviviridae | Flavivirus | – | South Polar skua (Stercorarius maccormicki) | Capture ELISA | Serum samples and cloacal swabs | Davis station | November/December 1999 | Miller et al. (2008) | |
| 29 | Herpesvirales | Herpesviridae | Varicellovirus | Phocid alphaherpesvirus 1 | Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii) |
Indirect ELISA using PhHV-1 as antigen, serum neutralization test |
Serum |
Queen Maud Land |
2001 |
Tryland et al. (2012) |
| 30 | Crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophaga) | Indirect ELISA using PhHV-1 as antigen, serum neutralization test |
Serum |
Queen Maud Land |
2001 |
Tryland et al. (2012) |
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| 31 | Testing for neutralizing antibodies against phocine, feline and canine herspevirus using either microneutralization or by neutralizing peroxidase-linked antibody assay |
Serum |
Weddell Sea |
1990 |
Harder et al. (1991) |
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| 32 | Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) | Indirect ELISA using PhHV-1 as antigen, serum neutralization test (SNT) |
Serum |
Queen Maud Land |
2001 |
Tryland et al. (2012) |
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| 33 | Testing for neutralizing antibodies against phocine, feline and canine herspevirus using either microneutralization or by neutralizing peroxidase-linked antibody assay |
Serum |
Weddell Sea |
1990 |
Harder et al. (1991) and Stenvers et al. (1992) |
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| 34 | Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazelle) | Indirect ELISA using PhHV-1 as antigen | Serum | Bouvet Island | 2000–2001, 2001–2002 | Tryland et al. (2012) | ||||
CDV: Canine distemper virus.
ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
IBDV: Infectious bursal disease virus.