Table III.

Field sampling for influenza and human coronaviruses including SARS-CoV environmental contamination

Study	Year	Setting and location	Sites sampled	Sampling method	No. of samples	No. positive (%)	Notes
Influenza
Indriani et al.56	2010	Live-bird markets, Indonesia	27 sites were sampled at 83 live-bird markets for avian influenza (H5N1)	Cotton swabs; PCR for viral RNA and viral culture	1862 (PCR)	280 (15)	39 (47%) markets contaminated at one or more site. Structured questionnaire to assess risk factors for contamination. One province and markets that slaughtered birds associated with contamination; zoning of poultry activities and daily disposal of solid waste were protective.
					280 (culture)	13 (4.6)
Killingley et al.57	2010	Influenza-infected adults in hospital and community settings in and around Nottingham, UK	19 patients (daily) and their immediate environment (every other day) were sampled.	Moistened cotton swabs; PCR for viral RNA and viral culture	397	2 (0.5)	Live virus recovered from 1/2 positive surfaces. 54% of subjects took an antiviral drug, which may have influenced shedding. Duration of virus shedding had a mean of 6.2 days and a range of 3–10 days.
Simmerman et al.58	2010	90 children with influenza in Bangkok, Thailand. Households were randomized to obtain handwashing education or not.	Six household items in 90 households	Moistened rayon tipped swabs; PCR for viral RNA and viral culture	540	18 (3.3)	16 (17.8%) of the 90 households had one or more samples positive for influenza by PCR. Nine TV remotes, six toys, two bathroom knobs and one light switch had positive results. No viable virus was detected by culture.
Pappas et al.59	2010	Toys in the waiting room of a general paediatric practice in Virginia, USA	Hard surfaces and fabric toy samples on three separate occasions	Moistened swab; samples tested for picornavirus, RSV and influenza by PCR	52	1 (1.9)	19.2% of the toys were contaminated with picornavirus RNA.
Bright et al.60	2010	Surfaces in three elementary school classrooms in Seattle, Washington, USA	Standardized surfaces sampled in the morning, at midday and in the afternoon.	Moistened swabs; PCR for viral RNA	54	13 (24.1)	Also, norovirus RNA was found on 16.4% of 55 surfaces sampled.
Macias et al.61	2009	Hospital in Mexico City, Mexico	Samples collected from hands and surfaces in the rooms of patients with confirmed influenza	Swabs; PCR for viral RNA	13	5 (38.5)	In one case, 1/5 surfaces (a bed rail) was positive from a patient's room 72 h after patient discharge and terminal cleaning. 5/6 samples from patient hands were positive for influenza.
Boone and Gerba62	2005	Homes and day-care centres in Tucson, Arizona, USA	Samples from eight homes	Moistened swabs; PCR for viral RNA	92	35 (38.0)	None of 33 surfaces sampled during summer months vs 59% of 59 samples during March.
			Samples from 14 day-care centres		218	–	Influenza was detected on 23% of surfaces during the autumn and 53% during the spring.
Human coronavirus
Booth et al.63	2005	Hospitals in Toronto, Canada	19 rooms in SARS units and ‘control’ areas not housing SARS patients	Moistened swabs; PCR for viral RNA and viral culture	85	3 (3.5)	Positive sites were a bed table, a television remote control and a refrigerator handle in a nurses' medication station. All swabs were culture negative. Two (5%) of 40 air-slit samples were positive for SARS-CoV.
Dowell et al.44	2004	Hospitals in Bangkok, Thailand and Taipei, Taiwan	SARS-infected patient areas (patient rooms, nursing stations, emergency department)	Moistened swabs; PCR for viral RNA and viral culture	63	24 (38.1)	All swabs were culture negative.
			Public areas		31	2 (6.4)
Memish et al.64	2014	Jeddah airport, Saudi Arabia	Various frequently touched items in public areas	Moistened swabs; PCR panel for viral culture	40	3 (7.5)	Human coronavirus (OC43/HKU1) RNA was identified from surfaces. Influenza B virus RNA was identified from 1/18 air samples, but was not identified on surfaces.

SARS-CoV, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus; PCR, polymerase chain reaction.