Table 1.
Descriptive information on adolescents’ sociodemographic characteristics and SES, family, school-related factors, and risk behavior (n = 943).
| Variables | Total | Substance-Use |
P | Suicidal Behavior |
P | Sexual Behavior |
P | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | |||||
| Age | ||||||||||
| 13–15 Years | 388 (41.1) | 311 (80.4) | 76 (19.6) | 0.627 | 344 (88.9) | 43 (11.1) | 0.249 | 342 (88.4) | 45 (11.6) | 0.244 |
| 16–19 Years | 555 (58.9) | 453 (81.6) | 102 (18.4) | 505 (91.2) | 49 (8.8) | 476 (85.8) | 79 (14.2) | |||
| Mean ± Standard Deviation 15.82 ± 1.31 | ||||||||||
| Sex | ||||||||||
| Male | 455 (48.3) | 341 (74.9) | 114 (25.1) | 0.000* | 420 (92.5) | 34 (7.5) | 0.023* | 353 (77.8) | 101 (22.2) | 0.000* |
| Female | 488 (51.7) | 423 (86.9) | 64 (13.1) | 429 (88.1) | 58 (11.9) | 465 (95.3) | 23 (4.7) | |||
| Grade | ||||||||||
| 9 | 317 (33.6) | 253 (79.8) | 64 (20.2) | 0.209 | 276 (87.3) | 40 (12.7) | 0.102 | 272 (85.8) | 45 (14.2) | 0.666 |
| 10 | 314 (33.3) | 248 (79.2) | 65 (20.8) | 289 (92.0) | 25 (8.0) | 276 (88.2) | 37 (11.8) | |||
| 11 | 312 (33.1) | 263 (84.3) | 49 (15.7) | 284 (91.3) | 27 (8.7) | 270 (86.5) | 42 (13.5) | |||
| Ethnicity | ||||||||||
| Brahmin/Chhetri | 333 (35.3) | 267 (80.4) | 65 (19.6) | 0.440 | 297 (89.7) | 34 (0.3) | 0.875 | 281 (84.4) | 52 (15.6) | 0.254 |
| Janajati | 505 (53.6) | 407 (80.6) | 98 (19.4) | 456 (90.3) | 49 (9.7) | 445 (88.3) | 59 (11.7) | |||
| Others (Dalit, Muslim, Terai caste) | 105 (11.1) | 90 (85.7) | 15 (14.3) | 96 (91.4) | 9 (8.6) | 92 (87.6) | 13 (12.4) | |||
| Religion | ||||||||||
| Hindu | 815 (86.4) | 666 (81.8) | 148 (18.2) | 0.158 | 743 (91.3) | 71 (8.7) | 0.006* | 716 (88.0) | 98 (12.0) | 0.010* |
| Others | 128 (13.6) | 98 (76.6) | 30 (23.4) | 106 (83.5) | 21 (16.5) | 102 (79.7) | 26 (20.3) | |||
| School District | ||||||||||
| Kathmandu | 336 (35.6) | 258 (77.0) | 77 (23.0) | 0.004* | 303 (90.4) | 32 (9.6) | 0.035* | 301 (89.6) | 35 (10.4) | 0.000* |
| Kaski | 361 (38.3) | 290 (80.3) | 71 (19.7) | 316 (87.5) | 45 (12.5) | 286 (79.2) | 75 (20.8) | |||
| Palpa | 246 (26.1) | 216 (87.8) | 30 (12.2) | 230 (93.9) | 15 (6.1) | 231 (94.3) | 14 (5.7) | |||
| Socio-economic-status | ||||||||||
| Hardly-sufficient | 66 (7.0) | 60 (90.9) | 6 (9.1) | 0.082 | 59 (89.4) | 7 (10.6) | 0.861 | 61 (92.4) | 5 (7.6) | 0.205 |
| Sufficient | 557 (59.1) | 451 (81.1) | 105 (18.9) | 499 (89.9) | 56 (10.1) | 476 (85.5) | 81 (14.5) | |||
| Surplus | 320 (33.9) | 253 (79.1) | 67 (20.9) | 291 (90.9) | 29 (9.1) | 281 (88.1) | 38 (11.9) | |||
| Father's Education | ||||||||||
| Illiterate | 44 (4.7) | 42 (95.5) | 2 (4.5) | 0.044* | 41 (93.2) | 3 (6.8) | 0.656 | 42 (95.5) | 2 (4.5) | 0.223 |
| Literate | 757 (80.3) | 607 (80.3) | 149 (19.7) | 683 (90.3) | 73 (9.7) | 654 (86.4) | 103 (13.6) | |||
| Don't know | 142 (15.1) | 115 (81.0) | 27 (19.0) | 125 (88.7) | 16 (11.3) | 122 (86.5) | 19 (13.5) | |||
| Mother's Education | ||||||||||
| Illiterate | 105 (11.1) | 85 (81.7) | 19 (18.3) | 0.511 | 97 (92.4) | 8 (7.6) | 0.301 | 93 (88.6) | 12 (11.4) | 0.852 |
| Literate | 700 (74.2) | 572 (81.7) | 128 (18.3) | 633 (90.6) | 66 (9.4) | 606 (86.6) | 94 (13.4) | |||
| Don't know | 138 (14.6) | 107 (77.5) | 31 (22.5) | 119 (86.9) | 18 (13.1) | 119 (86.9) | 18 (13.1) | |||
| Mother's Occupation | ||||||||||
| Other | 519 (55.0) | 406 (78.4) | 112 (21.6) | 0.018* | 456 (88.0) | 62 (12.0) | 0.012* | 439 (84.6) | 80 (15.4) | 0.024* |
| Home maker | 424 (45.0) | 358 (84.4) | 66 (15.6) | 393 (92.9) | 30 (7.1) | 379 (89.6) | 44 (10.4) | |||
| Father's Occupation | ||||||||||
| Not employed | 68 (7.2) | 47 (69.1) | 21 (30.9) | 0.009* | 55 (80.9) | 13 (19.1) | 0.007* | 56 (82.4) | 12 (17.6) | 0.250 |
| Employed | 871 (92.8) | 713 (82.0) | 157 (18.0) | 791 (91.0) | 78 (9.0) | 759 (87.2) | 111 (12.8) | |||
| Type of family | 529 (56.1) | 440 (83.3) | 88 (16.7) | 476 (90.3) | 51 (9.7) | 454 (86.0) | 74 (14.0) | |||
| Single | 0.048* | 0.908 | 0.383 | |||||||
| Joint | 414 (43.9) | 324 (78.3) | 90 (21.7) | 373 (90.1) | 41 (9.9) | 364 (87.9) | 50 (12.1) | |||
| Family conflict | ||||||||||
| Most often | 24 (2.5) | 19 (79.2) | 5 (20.8) | 0.010* | 21 (87.5) | 3 (12.5) | 0.006* | 21 (87.5) | 3 (12.5) | 0.013* |
| Sometimes | 605 (64.2) | 474 (78.3) | 131 (21.7) | 531 (88.1) | 72 (11.9) | 511 (84.5) | 94 (15.5) | |||
| Never | 314 (33.3) | 271 (86.6) | 42 (13.4) | 297 (94.6) | 17 (5.4) | 286 (91.4) | 27 (8.6) | |||
| Domestic violence | ||||||||||
| Most often | 18 (1.9) | 13 (72.2) | 5 (27.8) | 0.084 | 15 (83.3) | 3 (16.7) | 0.000* | 14 (82.4) | 3 (17.6) | 0.528 |
| Sometimes | 77 (8.2) | 56 (72.7) | 21 (27.3) | 59 (76.6) | 18 (23.4) | 64 (83.1) | 13 (16.9) | |||
| Never | 848 (89.9) | 695 (82.1) | 152 (17.9) | 775 (91.6) | 71 (8.4) | 740 (87.3) | 108 (12.7) | |||
| Love and bonding with parents | ||||||||||
| Most often | 789 (83.7) | 646 (82.0) | 142 (18.0) | 0.216 | 716 (91.0) | 71 (9.0) | 0.235 | 684 (86.7) | 105 (13.3) | 0.951 |
| Sometimes | 130 (13.8) | 98 (75.4) | 32 (24.6) | 112 (86.2) | 18 (13.8) | 114 (87.7) | 16 (12.3) | |||
| Never | 24 (2.5) | 20 (83.3) | 4 (16.7) | 21 (87.5) | 3 (12.5) | 20 (87.0) | 3 (13.0) | |||
| Verbal/emotional abuse at home | ||||||||||
| Most often | 21 (2.2) | 18 (85.7) | 3 (14.3) | 0.010* | 17 (81.0) | 4 (19.0) | 0.002* | 18 (85.7) | 3 (14.3) | 0.222 |
| Sometimes | 258 (27.4) | 193 (74.8) | 65 (25.2) | 219 (85.2) | 38 (14.8) | 216 (83.7) | 42 (16.3) | |||
| Never | 664 (70.4) | 553 (83.4) | 110 (16.6) | 613 (92.5) | 50 (7.5) | 584 (88.1) | 79 (11.9) | |||
| Physical abuse at home | ||||||||||
| Most often | 20 (2.1) | 17 (85.0) | 3 (15.0) | 0.155 | 17 (85.0) | 3 (15.0) | 0.099 | 15 (78.9) | 4 (21.1) | 0.191 |
| Sometimes | 174 (18.5) | 132 (75.9) | 42 (24.1) | 148 (86.0) | 24 (14.0) | 145 (83.3) | 29 (16.7) | |||
| Never | 748 (79.4) | 614 (82.2) | 133 (17.8) | 683 (91.3) | 65 (8.7) | 657 (87.8) | 91 (12.2) | |||
| Internet access at home | ||||||||||
| No | 402 (42.6) | 328 (81.8) | 73 (18.2) | 0.641 | 367 (91.5) | 34 (8.5) | 0.248 | 359 (89.5) | 42 (10.5) | 0.036* |
| Yes | 541 (57.4) | 436 (80.6) | 105 (19.4) | 482 (89.3) | 58 (10.7) | 459 (84.8) | 82 (15.2) | |||
| Family members' substance-use | ||||||||||
| Father No | 443 (47.0) | 376 (84.9) | 67 (15.1) | 0.005* | 407 (91.9) | 36 (8.1) | 0.108 | 388 (87.6) | 55 (12.4) | 0.522 |
| Yes | 500 (53.0) | 388 (77.8) | 111 (22.2) | 442 (88.8) | 56 (11.2) | 430 (86.2) | 69 (13.8) | |||
| Mother No | 811 (86.0) | 671 (82.2) | 139 (17.2) | 0.001* | 736 (90.9) | 74 (9.1) | 0.100 | 715 (88.3) | 95 (11.7) | 0.001* |
| Yes | 132 (14.0) | 93 (70.5) | 39 (29.5) | 113 (86.3) | 18 (13.7) | 103 (78.0) | 29 (22.0) | |||
| Siblings No | 851 (90.2) | 706 (83.1) | 144 (16.9) | 0.000* | 775 (91.3) | 74 (8.7) | 0.001* | 746 (87.8) | 104 (12.2) | 0.010* |
| Yes | 92 (9.8) | 58 (63.0) | 34 (37.0) | 74 (80.4) | 18 (19.6) | 72 (78.3) | 20 (21.) | |||
| Grandparents No | 656 (69.6) | 548 (83.5) | 108 (16.5) | 0.004* | 605 (92.4) | 50 (7.6) | 0.001* | 571 (87.2) | 84 (12.8) | 0.642 |
| Yes | 287 (30.4) | 216 (75.5) | 70 (24.5) | 244 (85.3) | 42 (14.7) | 247 (86.1) | 40 (13.9) | |||
| Parental control/monitoring | ||||||||||
| Inadequate | 25 (2.7) | 17 (68.0) | 8 (32.0) | 0.091 | 22 (88.0) | 3 (12.0) | 0.716 | 15 (62.5) | 9 (37.5) | 0.000* |
| Adequate | 910 (97.3) | 740 (81.4) | 169 (18.6) | 819 (90.2) | 89 (9.8) | 796 (87.5) | 114 (12.5) | |||
| Type of school | ||||||||||
| Government/Public | 562 (59.6) | 474 (84.5) | 87 (15.5) | 0.001* | 521 (92.9) | 40 (7.1) | 0.001* | 501 (89.1) | 61 (10.9) | 0.011* |
| Private | 381 (40.4) | 290 (76.1) | 91 (23.9) | 328 (86.3) | 52 (13.7) | 317 (83.4) | 63 (16.6) | |||
| Academic performance | ||||||||||
| Second, Third division | 278 (29.5) | 226 (81.3) | 52 (18.7) | 0.968 | 252 (91.0) | 25 (9.0) | 0.615 | 248 (89.2) | 30 (10.8) | 0.370 |
| Distinction and First Division | 646 (68.5) | 523 (81.1) | 122 (18.9) | 581 (90.1) | 64 (9.9) | 554 (85.9) | 91 (14.1) | |||
| Others | 19 (2.0) | 15 (78.9) | 4 (21.1) | 16 (84.2) | 3 (15.8) | 16 (84.2) | 3 (15.8) | |||
| Feel not met parental expectations in academics | ||||||||||
| No | 282 (29.9) | 235 (83.3) | 47 (16.7) | 0.249 | 252 (89.4) | 30 (10.6) | 0.565 | 255 (90.4) | 27 (9.6) | 0.033* |
| Yes | 660 (70.1) | 528 (80.1) | 131 (19.9) | 596 (90.6) | 62 (9.4) | 562 (85.3) | 97 (14.7) | |||
| Friend's substance-use | ||||||||||
| No | 644 (68.3) | 570 (88.6) | 73 (11.4) | 0.000* | 598 (93.1) | 44 (6.9) | 0.000* | 597 (92.8) | 46 (7.2) | 0.000* |
| Yes | 299 (31.7) | 194 (64.9) | 105 (35.1) | 251 (83.9) | 48 (16.1) | 221 (73.9) | 78 (26.1) | |||
| Friend's sexual behavior | ||||||||||
| No | 837 (88.8) | 699 (83.6) | 137 (16.4) | 0.000* | 764 (91.5) | 71 (8.5) | 0.000* | 768 (91.9) | 68 (8.1) | 0.000* |
| Yes | 106 (11.2) | 65 (61.3) | 41 (38.7) | 85 (80.2) | 21 (19.8) | 50 (47.2) | 56 (52.8) | |||
| Peer pressure | ||||||||||
| No | 869 (92.2) | 727 (83.8) | 141 (16.2) | 0.000* | 794 (91.6) | 73 (8.4) | 0.000* | 778 (89.6) | 90 (10.4) | 0.000* |
| Yes | 74 (7.8) | 37 (50.0) | 37 (50.0) | 55 (74.3) | 19 (25.7) | 40 (54.1) | 34 (45.9) | |||
| Teacher behaves good at school | ||||||||||
| No | 142 (15.1) | 93 (65.5) | 49 (34.5) | 0.000* | 114 (80.3) | 28 (19.7) | 0.000* | 108 (76.1) | 34 (23.9) | 0.000* |
| Yes | 801 (84.9) | 671 (83.9) | 129 (16.1) | 735 (92.0) | 64 (8.0) | 710 (88.8) | 90 (11.3) | |||
| Appreciation by Teacher | ||||||||||
| No | 149 (15.8) | 110 (73.8) | 39 (26.2) | 0.013* | 118 (79.2) | 31 (20.8) | 0.000* | 124 (83.8) | 24 (16.2) | 0.232 |
| Yes | 794 (84.2) | 654 (82.5) | 139 (17.5) | 731 (92.3) | 61 (7.7) | 694 (87.4) | 100 (12.6) | |||
| Teacher-student relation good | ||||||||||
| No | 131 (13.9) | 90 (68.7) | 41 (31.3) | 0.000* | 106 (80.9) | 25 (19.1) | 0.000* | 99 (75.6) | 32 (24.4) | 0.000* |
| Yes | 811 (86.1) | 673 (83.1) | 137 (16.9) | 742 (91.7) | 67 (8.3) | 718 (88.6) | 92 (11.4) | |||
| Strict school rules and monitoring | ||||||||||
| No | 205 (21.7) | 154 (75.5) | 50 (24.5) | 0.021* | 172 (83.9) | 33 (16.1) | 0.001* | 156 (76.5) | 48 (23.5) | 0.000* |
| Yes | 738 (78.3) | 610 (82.7) | 128 (17.3) | 677 (92.0) | 59 (8.0) | 662 (89.7) | 76 (10.3) | |||
| Substances offered/got in school territory | ||||||||||
| No | 907 (96.2) | 743 (82.0) | 163 (18.0) | 0.000* | 821 (90.7) | 84 (9.3) | 0.010* | 791 (87.3) | 115 (12.7) | 0.032* |
| Yes | 36 (3.8) | 21 (58.3) | 15 (41.7) | 28 (77.8) | 8 (22.2) | 27 (75.0) | 9 (25.0) | |||
Numbers in the parentheses indicate percentage, SE; Standard Error *significant P value < 0.05 by chi-square test.