Table 2.

Summary of existing fiber patterning technologies for cTE with resultant scaffolds and their respective properties. Symbols: NE: not evaluated.

Fiber technology	Architecture	Fiber diameter	Pore size / Porosity	Mechanical properties	Application	Ref.
Solution electrospinning	Aligned	269 ± 33 nm	≈1.5 μm	1.45 ± 0.20 MPa Young’s Modulus, 0.17 ± 0.05 MPa tensile strength	Myocardium	[168]
Solution electrospinning	Aligned	≈2.5 μm	≈2 μm	87.9 ± 24.7 MPa Young’s Modulus	Myocardium	[169]
Solution electrospinning	Aligned	1.53 ± 0.05 μm to 5.13 ± 0.19 μm	480 ± 85 μm2 to 980 ± 150 μm2	1.22 ± 0.07 MPa Young’s Modulus	Myocardium	[171]
Solution electrospinning	Aligned	Nanorange	Microporosity	500 ± 31 kPa longitudinal tensile elastic modulus, 74 ± 15 kPa transverse tensile elastic modulus	Myocardium	[173]
Rotary jet spinning	Aligned	≈425 nm	NE	≈17.5 ± 6.6 MPa Young’s Modulus	Myocardium	[136]
Solution electrospinning	Aligned tube	4.04 ± 0.25 μm	Porosity: 78–81%	3 MPa radial tangent modulus, 4.1 MPa circumferential tangent modulus	Valves	[181]
Solution electrospinning	Trilayered tubular	≈150–500 nm	NE, porous middle layer	Aligned parallel: 23.03 ± 2.00 MPa, aligned perpendicular: 5.26 ± 0.31 MPa, random 15,73 ± 2.55 MPa	Vasculature	[185]
Melt electrospinning	Squared and rectangular	4–12 μm	150–300 μm	0.70 ± 0.15 to 2.05 ± 0.15 MPa tensile modulus	Myocardium	[117]
Melt electrospinning	Hexagonal	NE	250–800 μm	5–11 MPa modulus in x-direction; 1–2 MPa modulus in y-direction	Myocardium	[34]
Melt electrospinning	Serpentine shaped	19.76 ± 1.54 μm	250 μm to 1 mm	3.07 ± 0.23 to 4.87 ± 0.094 MPa tensile modulus	Valves	[118]
Near-field electrospinning	Aligned fibers	0.5–3 μm	5–100 μm	NE	Vasculature	[128]
Wet spinning	Aligned tubular	NE	1–5 μm	NE	Vasculature	[186]
Microfluidic spinning	Mosaic fibers, aligned tubular scaffolds	≈50 μm, 1.5 mm tube diameter	NE	NE	Myocardium, vasculature	[163]
Microfluidic spinning/ textile technology	Hallow and solid fibers, weaved scaffolds with rectangular pores	20 ± 14 μm to 210 ± 5 μm	≈ 200 ± 1000 μm	6.3 ± 0.4 Pa to 730 ± 15 Pa Youngs modulus measured by an atomic force microscope across three different materials	Myocardium, vasculature	[159]