Table 5.

3D antimicrobial scaffolds. Scaffolds incorporating NPs. Mechanism: use of nanocarriers embedded in the scaffold to control the dosing of metal ions or antibiotic/drugs delivered locally at the defect site. Advantage: the NP carries are confined and are not able to target other cells or tissues.

	Scaffold composition	Antimicrobial agent	Fabrication technique	Results	References
Antimicrobial metallic NPs embedded in the scaffold	β-tricalcium phosphate bioceramic scaffolds modified with silver NPs-graphene oxide nanocomposite	AgNPs	3D printing followed by a soaking method	In vitro antibacterial activity against E. coli In vitro osteogenic differentiation and proliferation of rabbit bone marrow stromal cells cultured in the scaffolds	[125]
	MgSrFe-layered double hydroxide/chitosan composite scaffold loaded with uniformly dispersed Ag NPs on the scaffold surfaces	AgNPs	Freeze-drying preparation of the precursor scaffold followed by deposition of AgNPs on the MgSrFe/CS composite	In vitro antibacterial activity against S. aureus biofilm	[126]
				In vitro osteogenetic differentiation of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells cultured in the scaffolds
	Scaffolds containing chitosan and carboxymethyl cellulose decorated with AgNPs	AgNPs and chitosan	Freeze-drying method	In vitro antibacterial activity against E. coli and Enterococcus hirae (E. hirae)	[127]
	Chitosan, HA, and silver nanowires composite scaffold	Silver nanowires and chitosan	Freeze drying of the thermosensitive hydrogels after sol–gel transition	In vitro antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus and S. saprophyticus	[128]
	Porous titanium scaffold possessing a micro/nanostructured titanate layer and provided with nanosilver encapsulated in physically cross-linked silk fibrin	Nanosilver	Metallic powder 3D printing followed by in situ hydrothermal growth of a metal oxide and cross-linking of silk fibrin to physically encapsulate nanosilver	In vitro antibacterial activity against clinically relevant pathogenic S. aureus bacteria biofilm	[129]
	Zinc oxide NPs nanocrystalline HA scaffolds coated by gelatine	ZnO NPs	Space holder technique	In vitro	[130]
	Cu NPs on carboxymethyl chitosan and alginate	CuNPs	Cross-linking of the polymer mixtures followed by freeze drying	In vivo rat ectopic osteogenesis and infection model inoculated with S. aureus clinically collected S. aureus	[131]
Antibiotic-loaded NPs embedded in the scaffold	MSNs/gelatin matrix composite scaffold	Vancomycin-loaded MSNs	Freeze-drying method	In vitro antibacterial activity against S. aureus	[133]
	MSNs immobilized on the surface of a nanoHA/polyurethane bioactive composite scaffold	Levofloxacin-loaded MSNs	Immobilization of the MSNs by pretreatment of scaffold with chitosan and subsequent cross-linking by vanillin	In vitro antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus	[134]
	ZIF8 nanocrystals (metal-organic frameworks) embedded in chitosan scaffolds	Vancomycin-loaded ZIF8	Wet spinning	In vitro antibacterial activity against S. aureus	[135]
	BMP2 encapsulated into gelatin microspheres and vancomycin encapsulated into gelatin microspheres drug-contained gelatin microspheres assembled on GO-functionalized Ti porous scaffold	Vancomycin encapsulated into gelatin microspheres	Deposition of GO nanosheets onto mussel-inspired polydopamine-modified Ti scaffolds prepared via a powder sintering method	In vitro antibacterial activity against S. epidermidis In vivo ectopic bone regeneration in subcutaneous rat model to assess bone regeneration ability of the scaffolds	[136]
Incorporation of NPs in the scaffold for a dual effect	Chitosan/nanoHA scaffold doped with OD carbon dots	Chitosan combined with the photothermal effect of carbon dots	Physical mixing and freeze-drying method	In vitro antibacterial activity against clinically relevant S. aureus and E. coli In vivo model in muscle pouches of rats inoculated with clinically collected S. aureus and E. coli	[139]
	Nanostructured magnetic Mg2SiO4-CoFe2O4 composite scaffold	Rifampin combined with the magnetic hyperthermia effect	Polymer sponge and sintering technique to fabricate 3D porous scaffolds from Mg2SiO4-CoFe2O4 nanocomposite	In vitro antibacterial activity against S. aureus	[140]
	Silk fibroin NPs loaded with vascular endothelial growth factor embedded in a silk scaffold containing vancomycin	Vancomycin combined with the delivery of angiogenic factors	Freeze drying followed by cross-linking	In vitro antibacterial against methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA)	[141]