. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2021 Sep 1.

Published in final edited form as: Eur J Nutr. 2020 May 20;60(2):703–714. doi: 10.1007/s00394-020-02277-2

Table 2. Associations of maternal plasma carotenoids concentrations with scores of Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development-III at 2 years of age in the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes study (n=361).

	Cognitive			Receptive language			Expressive language			Fine motor			Gross motor
	β (95% CI)^a	P	R²	β (95% CI)	P	R²	β (95% CI)	P	R²	β (95% CI)	P	R²	β (95% CI)	P	R²
α-carotene
Model 1^b	0.06 (-0.03, 0.16)	0.20	2.3	0.09 (-0.01, 0.19)	0.08	2.4	0.10 (0.01, 0.20)	0.04	2.1	0.08 (-0.01, 0.18)	0.09	4.7	0.08 (-0.02, 0.18)	0.11	0.8
Model 2^c	-0.01 (-0.12, 0.10)	0.86	10.0	-0.003 (-0.11, 0.10)	0.95	12.3	0.05 (-0.05, 0.16)	0.29	11.7	0.06 (-0.05, 0.16)	0.32	6.4	0.07 (-0.04, 0.18)	0.22	5.7
β-carotene
Model 1	0.22 (0.11, 0.32)	0.001	6.2	0.23 (0.12, 0.33)	0.001	6.4	0.18 (0.08, 0.29)	0.001	4.1	0.14 (0.04, 0.25)	0.008	5.8	0.15 (0.04, 0.26)	0.006	2.1
Model 2	0.17 (0.05, 0.29)	0.006	11.9	0.15 (0.04, 0.27)	0.01	14.0	0.14 (0.03, 0.26)	0.01	13.0	0.12 (0.002, 0.24)	0.05	7.3	0.15 (0.03, 0.27)	0.02	6.7
β-cryptoxanthin
Model 1	0.21 (0.11, 0.31)	0.001	6.2	0.21 (0.10, 0.31)	0.001	5.7	0.15 (0.05, 0.25)	0.004	3.2	0.17 (0.07, 0.27)	0.001	6.9	0.17 (0.06, 0.27)	0.001	2.9
Model 2	0.18 (0.08, 0.28)	0.001	12.9	0.17 (0.07, 0.27)	0.001	15.0	0.12 (0.02, 0.22)	0.02	12.8	0.16 (0.05, 0.26)	0.004	8.5	0.16 (0.06, 0.27)	0.003	7.6

Effect estimates are per SD increment in log-transformed maternal plasma carotenoids concentrations, and per SD BSID-III score.

Model 1 was adjusted for child’s age at cognitive testing

Model 2 was adjusted as for Model 1 and maternal age, ethnicity, education, household income, pre-pregnancy BMI, parity, diet quality, antenatal depressive symptoms and anxiety levels.