Table 1.

Characteristics of the Laboratory Challenges used in the Study

Cognitive Challenges			Negatively-Valenced Emotional Challenges
Problem-solving	Cognitive Control		Blocked Goal	Unfairness
Tangrams (Pre-K, Kindergarten, Grade 1) Children placed three-dimensional wooden shapes into pictures of shapes. This task required problem-solving as children needed to combine 2 shapes to fit into a larger shape and flip the shapes to make them fit in the lines. The shapes became progressively more difficult.	Go/No-Go (Pre-K, Kindergarten, Grade 1) Children played a computer game during which they were asked press the button for all animals except for the dog. This task required attentional and cognitive control.		Locked Box (Pre-K) Children were given a set of wrong keys and instructed to use the keys to unlock the lock to get to an attractive toy. Impossible Gift (Kindergarten) Children were presented with a gift for their hard work and encouraged the child to open the gift right away; however, the gift was sealed so it could not be opened. Puzzle Box (Grade 1) Children were asked to assemble a wooden puzzle in a large box without looking at it Broken Toy (Grade 1) Children were given a cool hand computer toy to play with, but the toy did not work.	Toy Removal (Pre-K) The experimenter grabbed an attractive toy the child was playing with and did not return it for 2 minutes while commenting how fun it was to play with the toy. Not Sharing (Kindergarten) The experimenter did not share candy equally with the child and took away the candy initially given to the child and ate one piece without sharing.

Note. Two main categories of challenges were used: cognitive and emotional. There were 2 types of cognitive challenges, problem-solving and cognitive control, and 2 types of emotional challenges, blocked goal and unfairness.