Table 2.
Characteristics of participants and its distribution according to the presence of physical or psychological violence.
| Violence during pregnancy | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | Physical* | Psychological** | |||
| n (%) | n (%) | p | n (%) | p | |
| Maternal age (years) | |||||
| 13-19 | 160 (18.5) | 18 (34.6) | 9 (11.7) | ||
| 20-24 | 201 (23.3) | 16 (30.8) | 26 (33.8) | ||
| 25-29 | 213 (24.7) | 10 (19.2) | 16 (20.8) | ||
| ≥30 | 290 (33.6) | 8 (15.4) | 0.004 | 26 (33.8) | 0.138 |
| Education (years) | |||||
| 0-4 | 123 (14.3) | 13 (25.5) | 14 (18.2) | ||
| 5-8 | 313 (36.4) | 19 (37.3) | 22 (28.6) | ||
| 9-12 | 330 (38.4) | 17 (33.3) | 34 (44.2) | ||
| ≥13 | 93 (10.8) | 2 (3.9) | 0.088 | 7 (9.1) | 0.433 |
| Marital status | |||||
| Married (or in cohabitation) | 672 (77.6) | 37 (71.2) | 55 (71.4) | ||
| Single | 194 (22.4) | 15 (28.8) | 0.365 | 22 (28.6) | 0.274 |
| Place of Residence | |||||
| Urban | 446 (51.9) | 23 (44.2) | 37 (48.7) | ||
| Periurban | 413 (48.1) | 29 (55.8) | 0.350 | 39 (51.3) | 0.673 |
| Household electricity | |||||
| No | 11 (1.3) | 1 (1.9) | 4 (5.3) | ||
| Public | 700 (80.9) | 38 (73.1) | 59 (77.6) | ||
| Alternative source | 154 (17.8) | 13 (25.0) | 0.381 | 13 (17.1) | 0.029 |
| Water | |||||
| Piped water | 353 (40.8) | 19 (36.0) | 33 (42.9) | ||
| Fountain | 345 (39.8) | 24 (46.0) | 29 (37.7) | ||
| Tank | 168 (19.4) | 9 (17.3) | 0.666 | 15 (19.5) | 0.923 |
| Monthly Family Income (US$) | |||||
| ≤300 | 321 (38.0) | 18 (37.5) | 32 (42.1) | ||
| >300 | 217 (25.7) | 12 (25.0) | 25 (32.9) | ||
| Do not know/do not say | 306 (36.3) | 18 (37.5) | 0.984 | 19 (25.0) | 0.124 |
| Alcohol consumption | |||||
| No | 719 (83.0) | 31 (59.6) | 59 (76.6) | ||
| Yes | 147 (17.0) | 21 (40.4) | <0.001 | 18 (23.4) | 0.160 |
| 1st sexual intercourse (years) | |||||
| <15 | 77 (9.6) | 10 (20.8) | 12 (16.2) | ||
| ≥15 | 729 (90.4) | 38 (79.2) | 0.024 | 62 (83.8) | 0.069 |
| Ever used oral contraception | |||||
| No | 520 (60.0) | 34 (65.4) | 49 (63.6) | ||
| Yes | 346 (40.0) | 18 (34.6) | 0.536 | 28 (36.4) | 0.620 |
| Previous pregnancies | |||||
| No | 239 (27.6) | 22 (42.3) | 20 (26.0) | ||
| Yes | 627 (72.4) | 30 (57.7) | 0.034 | 57 (74.0) | 0.863 |
| First antenatal care visit | |||||
| 1st trimester | 436 (52.3) | 25 (55.6) | 37 (51.4) | ||
| 2nd trimester | 373 (44.7) | 16 (35.6) | 28 (38.9) | ||
| 3rd trimester | 25 (3.0) | 4 (8.9) | 0.068 | 7 (9.7) | 0.011 |
| Frequency antenatal care visit | |||||
| <4 | 520 (63.6) | 25 (58.1) | 44 (61.1) | ||
| ≥4 | 298 (36.4) | 18 (41.9) | 0.577 | 28 (38.9) | 0.774 |
| Yes | 184 (21.2) | 19 (36.5) | 0.016 | 20 (26.0) | 0.412 |
| Cesarean delivery | |||||
| No | 494 (57.0) | 27 (51.9) | 39 (50.6) | ||
| Yes | 372 (43.0) | 25 (48.1) | 0.562 | 38 (49.4) | 0.335 |
| HIV infection | |||||
| No | 860 (99.3) | 50 (96.2) | 74 (96.1) | ||
| Yes | 6 (0.7) | 2 (3.8) | 0.108 | 3 (3.9) | 0.031 |
| Preterm newborn | |||||
| No | 439 (74.4) | 21 (63.6) | 40 (75.5) | ||
| Yes | 151 (25.6) | 12 (36.4) | 0.243 | 13 (24.5) | 0.995 |
| Birthweight | |||||
| <2500 g | 116 (13.9) | 12 (24.0) | 10 (13.3) | ||
| ≥2500 g | 716 (86.1) | 38 (76.0) | 0.050 | 65 (86.7) | 0.884 |
| Fetal status | |||||
| Livebirth | 790 (91.2) | 47 (90.4) | 72 (93.5) | ||
| Stillbirth | 76 (8.8) | 5 (9.6) | 0.836 | 5 (6.5) | 0.636 |
*Physical violence includes women reporting physical abuse-only or any combination of physical, sexual and psychological abuse
**Psychological violence includes women reporting only psychological abuse.