Table 1.
.
| Example | Human health | Animal health | Environment | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Studies on influenza viruses in animals prior to 1997 | - Possible serological evidence of widespread infection | - Numerous influenza viruses detected and characterized in poultry and pigs | - Farming systems promote cross species infection | - Recognition of the likely importance of animals and animal viruses and rural environment in the genesis of pandemic viruses |
| Avian influenza 1997 | - Fatal zoonotic disease with pandemic potential | - Detection of disease and virus in poultry in markets and farms | - Role of the poultry production and marketing systems in the transmission and persistence of virus |
- Changes to production and marketing systems. - Enhanced collaboration and coordination between human and animal health. - Importance of molecular epidemiology and sharing of information. |
| Avian influenza 2001–now |
- Probable imported cases of influenza A(H5N1) and multiple human cases in region. - Detection of cases of H9N2 infection |
- Role of domestic ducks and wild birds in spread of virus and persistence of H5N1. - Rapid evolution and reassortment in avian influenza viruses |
- Wild bird trade, migratory patterns, duck farming systems demonstrated as contributing factors in virus transmission | - Enhanced interactions with wild bird ecologists |
| SARS 2003 | - Novel severe infectious disease disseminated via health care systems and global travel. |
- Likely role of demand for wild-animal meat, leading to large markets and cross-boundary trade to service this demand. - Animals within these “wild” animal markets act as amplifiers and source of zoonotic transmission. |
- Environmental issues associated with disease transmission in community outbreak (Amoy Gardens) and in hospitals. - Role of bats as likely reservoir of precursor virus. |
- Importance of pandemic preparedness and interdisciplinary and transboundary coordination and cooperation |
| Pandemic H1N1 2009 | - Rapid global spread of a novel virus with particularly high infection attack rates in children. | - On-going surveillance of pigs provided insights into pandemic emergence. | - Reverse zoonosis of virus from humans to pigs leading to a global perturbation of swine influenza ecology. |
- Asia is not the only epicenter for pandemic emergence. - Pandemics may emerge from influenza virus subtypes (e.g. H1) that are already endemic in humans. - Importance of pandemic preparedness and review of effectiveness of measures |