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. 2012 Mar 3;165:1–10. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2012.02.007

Table 2.

Emission factors of coal, liquefied natural gas, and oil products.

Fuel Type Processes Description Emission Factors Reference
Coal Extraction Surface mining and coal processing in Indonesia.
  • i.

    Mining: 0.3–2.0 m3 CH4/tonne

 IPCC (2010)
  • ii.

    Processing: 0–0.2 m3 CH4/tonne

Transport From PT Indonesia Bulk Terminal at Pulau Laut to Hong Kong by Post-Panamax type bulk carriers. Distance: 4000 km
  • i.

    4.92 g CO2/tonne-km

 Psaraftis and Kontovas (2009)
  • ii.

    0.11 g SO2/tonne-km

  • iii.

    0.14 g NOx/tonne-km

Combustion Burnt in Hong Kong's power plants with desulfurization and selective catalytic reduction systems.
  • i.

    94,600 kg CO2/TJ

 IPCC (2010); Hong Kong's power companies and Census and Statistics Dept.
  • ii.

    1 kg CH4/TJ

  • iii.

    1.5 kg N2O/TJ

  • iv.

    SO2 and NOx emissions were provided by power companies in terms of kT/year. Net calorific value: 26.4 kJ/kT.

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Extraction in Australia Venting of CO2, flaring and processing of natural gas (NG) to LNG at North West Shelf Gas in Australia.
  • i.

    70 kg CO2/tonne

 Australian Greenhouse Office (1998)
  • ii.

    0.68–0.76 kg CH4/tonne

Transport from Australia From North West Shelf in Australia to Guangdong LNG Terminal at Shenzhen by LNG carriers (for HK Electric) Distance: 5140 km
  • i.

    12.72 g CO2/tonne-km

 Psaraftis and Kontovas (2009)
  • ii.

    0.28 g SO2/tonne-km

  • iii.

    0.35 g NOx/tonne-km

Extraction and transmission in Hainan, China Provision of LNG from the Yacheng Gas Field to Hong Kong's CLP Power using subsea pipeline. Distance: 780 km
  • i.

    2000 m3 CH4/km/yr

 IPCC (2010)
Combustion Burnt in Hong Kong's power plants.
  • i.

    64,200 kg CO2/TJ

 IPCC (2010); HK Electric's sustainability reports.
  • ii.

    3 kg CH4/TJ

  • iii.

    0.6 kg N2O/TJ Net calorific value: 54.4 kJ/kT.

Oil Extraction in the Middle East Flaring, venting and processing of oil in the Middle East.
  • i.

    13.6–19.5 kg CO2E/bbl of crude oil; 1 barrel of oil = 138.8 kg

 US DOE (2009); Al-Hamad and Khan (2008)
  • ii.

    0.51 kg SO2/tonne of crude oil

  • iii.

    0.02 kg NOx/tonne of crude oil

Transport Crude oil is transported to Singapore for refining. Heavy fuel oil (HFO) and light gas oil (LGO) are transported from Singapore to Hong Kong by Aframax oil tankers. Distances- Middle East → Singapore: 6870 km; Singapore → Hong Kong: 2710 km
  • i.

    5.63 g CO2/tonne-km

 Psaraftis and Kontovas (2009)
  • ii.

    0.12 g SO2/tonne-km

  • iii.

    0.15 g NOx/tonne-km

Refining Crude oil is processed in refineries in Singapore.
  • i.

    17 kg CO2/tonne of HFO

 Babusiaux and Pierru (2007); EC (2003)
  • ii.

    27 kg CO2/tonne of LGO

  • iii.

    0.03–6 kg SO2//tonne of oil

  • iv.

    0.06–0.7 kg NOx/tonne of oil

Combustion Burnt in Hong Kong's power plants.
  • i.

    77,400 kg CO2/TJ of HFO

 IPCC (2010); Hong Kong's power companies and Census and Statistics Dept.
  • ii.

    74,100 kg CO2/TJ of LGO

  • iii.

    3 kg CH4/TJ

  • iv.

    0.6 kg N2O/TJ Net calorific value: 40.4 kJ/kT of HFO. Net calorific value: 43.0 kJ/kT of LGO.

Nuclear Mining, processing, and transport Nuclear fuel is processed in France and transported to Shenzhen's Daya Bay Nuclear Power Station.
  • i.

    0.58–118 g (mean: 25.09 g) CO2E/kWh

 Sovacool (2008)
Operation of a nuclear power Pressurized water reactors are operated in Shenzhen.
  • i.

    0.1–40 g (mean: 11.58 g) CO2E/kWh

 Sovacool (2008)