Table 3.
Survival of foodborne pathogens in manure.
| Pathogen | Media | Concentration inoculated | Experimental conditions | Main findings | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Escherichia coli 0149 | Slurry | NS | Cattle & pig slurry, Aerated & non-aerated, 18–20 °C, 6–9 °C. 10–14 W, pH (6.9–7.8) | Exponential reduction during storage. At both temperatures, inactivation was faster in aerated than in non-aerated slurry batches. | Munch et al., 1987 |
| E. coli O157:H7 | Bovine feces | 103 & 105 cfu/g | 5, 22 & 37 °C, pH (6.8–7.4) | Survived for up to 70 d, depending on temperature. | Wang et al., 1996 |
| E. coli O157:H7 | Manure (feces from ruminant animals) | 105 - 108 cfu/g | pH (7.0 - 9.0), Non aerated ovine manure, aerated ovine manure, and aerated bovine manure, 20, 4, 10, 23, 37, 45 & 70 °C, 100 d | Survived for up to 21 months. | Kudva et al., 1998 |
| E. coli O26, O111, O157 | Bovine feces | 101, 103, 105 cfu/g | 5, 15 & 25 °C | Strains survived for up to 18 W depending on inoculum concentration and temperature. | Fukushima et al., 1999 |
| E. coli O157:H7 | Cattle manure Manure slurry |
106–108 cfu/g | Stored at 4, 20, 37 °C, pH (7.42 at the beginning, 7.10–9.47, by the end) | Capable of long term survival. | HimathongKham et al., 1999 |
| E. coli O157:H7 | Cattle slurry | 106 cfu/g | Survival in slurry from cattle fed different diets (an entire silage diet & a silage + concentrate diet) was compared. 10 °C, 84 d, pH (7.6 & 7.12) for silage and silage + concentrate respectively. | Can persist in slurry for an extended time period. Approximately 3.5–5.5 log reduction in numbers in slurry from cattle fed a silage and cattle fed a silage + concentrate diet respectively over 84 d. | McGee et al., 2001 |
| E. coli 11943 | (Pig) Farm yard manure | NS | 50 & 55 °C, 72 h | Survival depended on substrate composition, moisture content & duration of incubation. Temperatures in excess of 55 °C for 2 h are required for inactivation. | Turner, 2002 |
| E. coli O157:H7 | Bovine derived manure | 102 - 106 cfu/g | Compared the survival of laboratory grown vs bovine derived E. coli O157:H7. 40–50 °C, 50–60 °C, >60 °C, composted in lab scale bioreactors | With increase in temperature, survival declined. | Hess et al., 2004 |
| E. coli O157:H7 | Slaughterhouse waste Raw & treated sewage Bovine slurry |
107 cfu/cm3 | 10 °C, pH (4.44–12.42) | Gradual decline in cell count in all waste types, long-term storage may be an effective means of reducing pathogen loads in wastes before land application. | Avery et al., 2005 |
| E. coli O157 | Pig slurries Cattle slurries Dirty water |
106 cfu/g | Laboratory controlled conditions, pH (6.20–7.70, summertime, 5.40–7.73, winter), average waste temperature- 12.4 & 4.3 °C in summer & winter respectively | Slow population decline generally. More rapid decline in dirty water than in pig slurry. Season of waste deposition & storage as well as dry matter content of the wastes did not affect the rate of decline. | Hutchison et al., 2005 |
| E. coli (non O157:H7, STEC) | Cow manure | 106–107 cfu/g | Survival compared in unturned & turned manure heaps, moisture content- 42% - 76.5% in turned heaps, 77.5%–37% in unturned heaps | Capable of long term survival. | Fremaux et al., 2007a |
| E. coli 026 | Cow slurry | 106 cfu/ml in 15 L of cow slurry | pH (8.5–9.5), 113 d | Detected for up to 3 months. Capable of survival for an extended period. | Fremaux et al., 2007b |
| E. coli O157:H7 | Dairy manure based compost | 107 & 105 cfu/g | pH (7.9 & 8.0), % moisture content- 63.6 & 56.5, field setting | Survived at heap's surface for up to 4 months. | Shepherd et al., 2007 |
| E. coli ER2566 | Dairy manure | 107 cfu/g | Ability of black soldier fly (Diptera stratiomyidae) to reduce counts was assessed. The effect of temperature was examined. 72 h, 23, 27, 31, 35 °C | Concentrations significantly reduced in all treatments. Better reduction in cells with an increase in temperature. | Liu et al., 2008 |
| E. coli O157:H7 | Dairy compost | 103, 108.4 cfu/g for autoclaved and non autoclaved samples respectively | 10–50% moisture levels, greenhouse conditions, ‘room’ temperature, compared sterilized and non-sterilized compost | Better growth recorded when background microflora was low. | Kim and Jiang 2010 |
| E. coli O157:H7 | FYM & Slurry |
107 cfu/g | Aerobic and anaerobic conditions compared, 16 °C, 12 d | Significantly longer survival under anaerobic conditions compared to aerobic conditions. Effect of anaerobic storage on survival more pronounced in FYM than slurry. | Semenov et al., 2011 |
| E. coli O157:H7 | (Fresh) dairy compost | 107 cfu/g | Moisture- 40/50%, 50, 55 & 60 °C | Initial moisture levels in compost affects inactivation. Survival for 72, 48 & 24 h in compost with 40% moisture & 72, 24, 24 h in compost with 50% moisture at 50, 55 & 60 °C. | Singh et al., 2011 |
| Salmonella (Thompson, Typhimurium, Senftenberg) | Litter & dry droppings | 1010 cfu/g | Effect of ammonia on survival rate was assessed. Moisture % by wt (0–22.0), pH (6.3–8.65) | Death rates increased with increase in aw. addition of ammonia accelerated the death rates. | Turnbull and Snoeyenbos, 1973 |
|
Salmonella Dublin (HWS5I, 859/65, 2415) Typhimurium (2337/65, A665) Stanley (S8o4/7) Choleraesuis (SI346/72) Choleraesuis var Kunzedorf (S140/72) |
Cattle slurry | 105, 106 cfu/g | pH (7.5) 5, 10, 20 & 30 °C | Survived for up to 132 d at 5 °C. | Jones, 1976 |
| S. Typhimurium 0035 | Cattle slurry | 107 cfu/ml | 135 d, 4 & 17 °C | Reduction in viable numbers during slurry storage period. | Kearney et al., 1993 |
| Salmonella Infantis a | Fresh slurry | 104 cfu/g | The effect of aeration on survival was investigated- in laboratory experiemnts and in farm scale slurry tanks. ‘Room temperature’, 6–39.4 °C | Sensitive to aeration, exponential decline in aerated slurry within 2–5 W | Heinonen-Tanski et al., 1998 |
| Salmonellaa | Spent pig litter (partially decomposed pig manure + sawdust) | NS | Effect of composting on elimination of Salmonella was investigated. Moisture content- 60%, 91 d | Temperature has an effect on the elimination of Salmonella from the spent litter. Temperature from 64 to 67 °C sufficiently killed the pathogens during windrow composting. | Tiquia et al., 1998 |
| Salmonella Typhimurium | Cattle manure Manure slurry |
106–108 cfu/g | Stored at 4, 20, 37 °C, pH (7.42 at the beginning, 7.10–9.47, by the end) | Population reduction time ranged from 6 d to 3W in manure & 2 d to 5 W in manure slurry | HimathongKham et al., 1999 |
| Salmonella Typhimurium, Agona, Hadar, Oranienburg | Hog manure | 107 cfu/mL | 4, 25, 37 °C, ≤ 16 months, pH (7–7.5) | Cell numbers declined during storage. At 4 °C, survival was >300 d. | Arrus et al., 2006 |
| Salmonella Newport | Dairy manure | 107.12 cfu/g | Used 2 strains- MDR & DS strains, 184 d, pH (6.7), moisture content- 86% | Below the detection limit of the direct plating method | You et al., 2006 |
| S. Newport | Sewage sludge | 109 cfu/g | 43 h of composting, 60 C, | No viable cells detected after composting. | Wiley and Westerberg, 1969 |
| Salmonella spp. | Dairy compost | 101 cfu/g | Autoclaved and non-autoclaved compost compared, moisture levels of 10–50% | Increase in population within 3 d in autoclaved compost at 40% moisture. No growth in non-autoclaved compost observed. | Kim and Jiang 2010 |
| Salmonella Typhimurium | FYM & slurry | 107 cfu/g | Aerobic and anaerobic conditions compared, 16 °C, 12 d | No significant difference in survival under aerobic & anaerobic conditions | Semenov et al., 2011 |
| Listeria monocytogenes | Cattle slurry | 108 cfu/ml | 84 d, 4/17 °C | Decline in viable numbers is temperature dependent. More rapid decline was observed at 17 °C than at 4 °C. | Kearney et al., 1993 |
| L. monocytogenes | Cattle slurry | 106 cfu/g | pH (6.9) moisture 12.1% | Decline at similar rates during summer and winter. | Hutchison et al., 2004 |
| L. monocytogenes | Dairy compost | 101 cfu/g | Initial moisture levels of 10–50%, greenhouse conditions, | Increase in population in compost with initial moisture content of 30%. Detected for up to 28 d in all seasons. Temperature, light intensity and moisture affected growth potential & survival. | Kim and Jiang, 2010 |
| Campylobacter jejuni | Cattle slurry | 104 cfu/ml | 112 d, 4/17 °C, | Storage period was insufficient to reduce viable numbers. | Kearney et al., 1993 |
| C. jejuni | Biosolids | 106, 107, 108 cfu/g | 5, 22, 38, 49.5 °C, 62d, pH (5.5–6.3), 3 batches, | Cells were sensitive to temperature, | Ahmed and Sorensen 1995 |
| C. jejuni | Pig slurries Cattle slurries Dirty waters |
106 cfu/g | Laboratory controlled conditions, pH (6.20–7.70, summertime, 5.40–7.73, winter), average waste temperature- 12.4 & 4.3 °C in summer & winter respectively | Rapid population decline, not affected by season of waste deposition and storage. | Hutchison et al., 2005 |
| Yersinia enterocolitica | Cattle slurry | 109 cfu/ml | 142 d, stored at 4/17 °C | Anaerobic digestion had little effect in reducing the viable numbers. | Kearney et al., 1993 |
| Y. enterocolitica | Biosolids | 108, 109 MPN/100g | 5, 22, 38, 49.5 °C, aerobic & anaerobic conditions, 62 d | Destruction at all temperature profiles, but destruction improved with increase in temperature. Oxygen did not have a significant impact on survival | Ahmed and Sorensen, 1995 |
Key: M- Months, FYM- Farm Yard Manure, h-hours, vs-versus, d-day(s), NS-Not specified.