Table 1.
Risk factors for respiratory disease: univariate analysis
| Characteristics | Total (n) | At least one respiratory symptom or sign n (%) | No respiratory symptom and no sign n (%) | Univariate analysis Odds ratio (95% CI), p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | 168 (35.3) | 308 (64.3) | ||
| Year of studya | ||||
| 2015 | 125 (26.1) | 37 (29.6) | 88 (70.4) | |
| 2016 | 156 (32.6) | 74 (47.4) | 82 (52.6) | |
| 2017 | 198 (41.3) | 57 (29.2) | 138 (70.8) | |
| Shelter | ||||
| A | 311 (64.9) | 107 (35.2) | 201 (65.3) | 0.93 (0.63–1.38), p 0.73 |
| B | 168 (35.1) | 61 (36.3) | 107 (63.7) | Ref |
| Age | ||||
| Mean age (SD) | 43.6 ± 16 years | NA | ||
| Age range | 18–84 years | NA | ||
| ≤50 years of age | 318 (66.8) | 98 (30.8) | 220 (69.2) | Ref |
| >50 years of age | 158 (33.2) | 69 (44.2) | 87 (55.8) | 1.78 (1.20–2.64), p 0.004 |
| Birthplace | ||||
| France (mainland) | 71 (14.8) | 39 (54.9) | 32 (45.1) | Ref |
| France (overseas territories) | 1 (0.2) | 0 (0) | 1 (100) | NA |
| North Africa | 300 (62.6) | 100 (33.4) | 199 (66.6) | 0.41 (0.25–0.70), p 0.001 |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 43 (9.0) | 7 (16.3) | 36 (83.7) | 0.16 (0.63–0.41), p <0.0001 |
| East Europe | 35 (7.3) | 13 (39.4) | 20 (60.6) | 0.53 (0.23–1.24), p 0.14 |
| West Europe | 9 (1.9) | 2 (22.2) | 7 (77.8) | 0.23 (0.04–1.21), p 0.08 |
| Asia | 20 (4.2) | 7 (35.0) | 13 (65.0) | 0.44 (0.16–1.24), p 0.12 |
| Other | 0 (0) | NA | ||
| Mean duration of residence in France (SD) | 9.88 (0–25.4) | NA | NA | |
| Range of duration of residence in France | 0–65 years | NA | NA | |
| ≥1 year | 220 (55.3) | 79 (35.9) | 141 (64.1) | 1.52 (0.99–2.32), p 0.06 |
| <1 year | 178 (44.7) | 48 (27.0) | 130 (73.0) | Ref |
| Visit to country of origin since immigration | 126 (31.9) | 51 (40.5) | 75 (59.5) | 1.76 (1.13–2.74), p 0.012 |
| No visits to country of origin since immigration | 269 (68.1) | 75 (27.9) | 194 (72.1) | Ref |
| Mean duration of homelessness (SD) | 2.66 years (0–7.8) | NA | NA | |
| Range of duration of homelessness | 0–52 years | |||
| ≥1 year | 175 (37.6) | 80 (45.7) | 95 (70.6) | 2.02 (1.37–2.99), p <0.0001 |
| <1 year | 290 (62.4) | 85 (29.4) | 204 (70.6) | Ref |
| Addiction | ||||
| Alcohol | ||||
| Frequent | 52 (10.9) | 24 (47.1) | 27 (52.9) | 1.75 (0.98–3.14), p 0.06 |
| Rare or never | 424 (89.1) | 143 (33.7) | 281 (66.3) | Ref |
| Tobacco | ||||
| Yes | 293 (61.2) | 113 (38.7) | 179 (61.3) | 1.48 (1.00–2.20), p 0.05 |
| Never | 185 (38.7) | 55 (30.3) | 129 (70.1) | Ref |
| Cannabis | 75 (15.7) | 28 (37.3) | 47 (62.7) | 1.11 (0.67–1.85), p 0.69 |
| Injected substances | 2 (0.4) | 0 (0) | 2 (100) | |
| Snorted substances | 13 (2.7) | 4 (30.8) | 9 (66.2) | |
| Drug substitutes | 1 (0.2) | 1 (100) | 0 (0) | |
| Chronic diseases | ||||
| Chronic respiratory diseases | 38 (8.1) | 27 (71.0) | 11 (28.9) | 5.12 (2.47–10.62), p <0.0001 |
| Diabetes mellitus | 36 (7.6) | 14 (38.9) | 22 (61.1) | 1.18 (0.59–2.37), p 0.65 |
| Cancer | 5 (1.1) | 1 (20) | 4 (80) | |
| Hepatitis | 10 (2.1) | 8 (80) | 2 (20) | |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | ||||
| Mean body mass index | 24.4 ± 4.0 | NA | NA | |
| Range of Body mass index | ||||
| Normal weight | 251 (55.9) | 86 (34.3) | 165 (65.7) | Ref |
| Underweight | 17 (3.8) | 9 (52.9) | 8 (47.1) | 0.46 (0.17–0.24), p 0.12 |
| Overweight | 138 (30.7) | 47 (34.1) | 91 (65.9) | 1.00 (0.65–1.56), p 0.97 |
| Obesity | 43 (9.6) | 12 (27.9) | 31 (72.1) | 1.35 (0.65–2.75), p 0.41 |
| Seasonal vaccination against influenza | 71 (15.1) | 31 (43.7) | 40 (56.3) | 1.50 (0.90–2.5), p 0.12 |
| Respiratory carriage | ||||
| Haemophilus influenzae | 280 (59.6) | 90 (32.4) | 189 (67.7) | 0.73 (0.50–1.08), p 0.11 |
| Streptococcus pneumoniae | 59 (12.4) | 32 (54.2) | 27 (45.8) | 2.45 (1.42–4.29), p 0.001 |
| Staphylococcus aureus | 35 (7.3) | 10 (26.8) | 25 (71.4) | 0.72 (0.33–1.53), p 0.4 |
| Klebsiella pneumoniae | 35 (7.3) | 11 (31.4) | 24 (68.6) | 0.83 (0.40–1.75), p 0.63 |
| At least one virus | 51 (10.8) | 26 (51) | 25 (49) | 2.09 (1.17–3.49), p 0.012 |
| Human rhinovirus | 25 (5.3) | 11 (44) | 14 (56) | 1.48 (0.65–3.34), p 0.34 |
| Human coronavirus | 10 (2.1) | 5 (50) | 5 (50) | |
| Influenza A virus | 7 (1.5) | 4 (57.1) | 3 (42.9) | |
| Influenza B virus | 7 (1.5) | 5 (71.4) | 2 (28.6) | |
| Human respiratory syncytial virus | 3 (0.6) | 1 (33.3) | 2 (66.6) | |
| Human para-influenza virus | 1 (0.2) | 1 (100) | 0 | |
| Human metapneumovirus | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| Co-infection | ||||
| H. influenzae + S. pneumoniae | 43 (9.0) | 24 (55.8) | 19 (44.2) | 2.55 (1.35–4.82), p 0.003 |
| H. influenzae + virus | 33 (7.0) | 14 (42.2) | 19 (57.6) | 1.4 (0.68–2.85), p 0.36 |
| H. influenzae + K. pneumoniae | 25 (5.2) | 6 (24) | 19 (76) | 0.57 (0.22–1.45), p 0.23 |
| H. influenzae + Staph. aureus | 24 (5.0) | 8 (33.3) | 16 (66.7) | 0.92 (0.38–2.19), p 0.85 |
| S. pneumoniae + virus | 12 (2.5) | 9 (75) | 3 (25) | |
| S. pneumoniae + Staph. aureus | 9 (1.9) | 4 (44.4) | 5 (55.6) | |
| S. pneumoniae + K. pneumoniae | 5 (1.0) | 3 (60) | 2 (40) | |
| Staph. aureus + K. pneumoniae | 4 (0.8) | 0 | 4 (100) | |
| Staph. aureus + virus | 4 (0.8) | 3 (75) | 1 (25) | |
Abbreviations: SD, standard deviation; NA, not applicable, Ref, Reference category.
a
Year of study was not included in the analysis, given that no intervention could be done based on this criterion.