Table 1.

Viruses that influence host endocrine functions

Mode of action	Virus type	Virus name	Affected organs and tissues	Diseases and symptoms	Refs
Activation of the HPA axis/stress system		Any viruses that cause systemic viremia and inflammation	Entire body, including the HPA axis/stress system	Sickness syndrome manifestations observed during a systemic inflammatory response, such as fever, malaise and appetite loss	[8]
Direct destruction of endocrine organs	ssRNA virus	Mumps virus	Testis, ovary	Impairment of fertility (rare), low testosterone levels	[60]
	ssRNA virus	Hantaan and Puumala viruses (hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome)	Pituitary gland	Hypopituitarism	[61]
	dsDNA virus	Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (neonatal infection)	Adrenal gland, pituitary gland	Adrenal and pituitary inflammation	[62]
	ssRNA retrovirus	HIV-1	Adrenal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, testis, ovary	Adrenal insufficiency, hypopituitarism (rare)	[63]
Autoimmune-mediated organ destruction	ssRNA virus	Hepatitis C virus (HCV)	Thyroid gland	Chronic thyroiditis (with interferon γ)	[64]
	ssRNA virus	Rubella virus	Pancreatic islet cells, pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland	Multiple endocrine organ failure	[65]
	ssRNA viruses	Mumps, Rubella and Coxsackie B viruses	Pancreatic islet cells	Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus	[66]
	ssRNA viruses	Influenza, Coxsackie B virus, enteroviruses	Thyroid gland	Subacute thyroiditis	[67]
	dsDNA virus	Epstein Barr virus	Pancreatic islet cells	Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus	[66]