Table 2.
Biomarker Groups | Biomarker Examples | Treatment/indicator of | Reported Concentrations | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Biomarkers of intervention | Antibiotics | |||
e.g. Drugs and metabolites | Sulfamethoxazole n-Acetyl sulfamethoxazole |
Urinary tract infections, bronchitis | <3–3100 ng/L (INF) 360 ± 110 ng/L (INF) |
(Guerra et al., 2014, Hijosa-Valsero et al., 2011, Kasprzyk-Hordern et al., 2009) |
Azithromycin n-Demethyl azithromycin |
Pneumonia. middle ear infections, strep throat and intestinal infectios | 269–22,730 ng/L (INF) <30–74 ng/L (INF) |
(Senta et al., 2019) | |
Clarithromycin n- Demethyl clarithromycin |
Pneumonia, skin infections, H. pylori infection, and Lyme disease. | 111–10,491 ng/L (INF) 13–1559 ng/L (INF) |
(Senta et al., 2019) | |
Ciprofloxacin | Respiratory tract infections, skin infections, gastroenteritis | 17-2500 ng/L (INF) | (Guerra et al., 2014) | |
Erythromycin | Respiratory tract infections | 14–10,025 ng/L (INF) | (Guerra et al., 2014, Kasprzyk-Hordern et al., 2009) | |
Trimethoprim | Urinary tract infections | 464–6796 ng/L (INF) | (Kasprzyk-Hordern et al., 2009, Roberts and Thomas, 2006) | |
Antivirals | ||||
Oseltamivir phosphate Oseltamivir carboxylate |
Flu virus (influenza) | 5–529 ng/L (INF) 28–1213 ng/L (INF) |
(Leknes et al., 2012, Takanami et al., 2012) | |
Acyclovir Carboxy-acyclovir |
Herpes simplex virus infections, chicken pox, shingles | 1780 ng/L (INF) 490–3420 ng/L (INF) |
(Funke et al., 2016, Prasse et al., 2010) | |
Emtricitabine Carboxy-emtricitabine |
HIV | 100–980 ng/L (INF) 24–250 ng/L (INF) |
(Funke et al., 2016) | |
Lamivudine, Carboxy lamivudine |
HIV/AIDs, hepatitis B | 52–720 ng/L (INF) 25–84 ng/L (INF) |
(Funke et al., 2016, Prasse et al., 2010) | |
Abacavir Carboxy-abacavir |
HIV/AIDs | 21–140 ng/L (INF) 41–560 ng/L (INF) |
(Funke et al., 2016) | |
Zanamivir | Flu virus (influenza) | 16.3–27.8 ng/L (INF) | (Takanami et al., 2012) | |
Zidovudine | HIV/AIDs | 310–380 ng/L (INF) | (Prasse et al., 2010) | |
Nevirapine | HIV/AIDs | 4.8–21.8 ng/L (INF) | (Prasse et al., 2010) | |
Antifungals | ||||
Ketaconcazole | Skin infections | 16 ng/L(INF) | (Huang et al., 2010) | |
Miconazole | Skin infections | 5.2–1583 ng/L (INF) | (Guerra et al., 2014, Huang et al., 2010, Kasprzyk-Hordern et al., 2009) | |
Clotrimazole | Skin and vaginal infections | 23-33 ng/L (INF) | (Huang et al., 2010, Roberts and Thomas, 2006) | |
Painkillers | ||||
Acetaminophen | Painkiller | 5529–500,000 ng/L(INF) | (Guerra et al., 2014, Roberts and Thomas, 2006) | |
Ibuprofen | Painkiller | 968–45,000 ng/L(INF) | (Guerra et al., 2014, Kasprzyk-Hordern et al., 2009, Roberts and Thomas, 2006) | |
Biochemical markers linked with physiological response | C-reactive protein (CRP) | Inflammation | 0.54–2.76 μg/mL (Urine) | (Stuveling et al., 2003) |
e.g. Biomarkers of inflammation | Interlukin-6 (IL-6) | Inflammation in urinary tract infections | 1.6–5.28 pg/mL(Urine) | (Renata et al., 2013, Roilides et al., 1999) |
Interlukin-8 (IL-8) | Inflammation in urinary tract infections | 7–12 pg/mL (Urine) | (Taha, 2003) | |
Lipoarabinomannan (LAM) | Potential indicator of tuberculosis in HIV infected patients | 15 pg/mL to several hundred ng/mL(Urine) | (Boehme et al., 2005, Hamasur et al., 2015, Savolainen et al., 2013) | |
IP-10 | Potential indicator of tuberculosis and pneumonia | 5–110 pg/mL (Urine) | (Cannas et al., 2010, Kim et al., 2018) | |
Pathogenic organisms | Bacterial DNA | |||
e.g. Pathogenic genetic material/ DNA/RNA | Klebsiella pneumoniae | Pneumonia, UTI, bacteremia and endophthalmitis | 6.31–6.56 log gene copies/100mL (INF) | (Shannon et al., 2007) |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Pneumonia, UTI, gastrointestinal infections | 4.31–4.38 log gene copies/100 mL (INF) | (Shannon et al., 2007) | |
Enterococcus faecalis | UTIs, bacteremia, septicemia | 4.66–4.85 log gene copies/100 mL (INF) | (Shannon et al., 2007) | |
Viral DNA/RNA | ||||
Norovirus (GI) | Gastroenteritis | <10–3500 viral genomes/L (INF) | (Hellmér et al., 2014) | |
Norovirus (GII) | Gastroenteritis | 12.4 × 103–320 × 103 viral genomes/L (INF) | (Hellmér et al., 2014) | |
Influenza A | Respiratory infection | 2.6 × 105 genome copies/L (INF) | (Heijnen and Medema, 2011) | |
Dengue | Severe flu-like illness | 4-5 × 10−1 PFU/mL(Urine) | (Poloni et al., 2010) | |
Zika | Mild infection, microcephaly | 0.7–220.106 copies/mL (Urine) | (Gourinat et al., 2015) | |
Hepatitis A | Liver infection | <10-1500 viral genomes/L (INF) | (Hellmér et al., 2014) | |
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS CoV) | Respiratory infection | <1x101-106.5 (Faeces) | (Poon et al., 2004) | |
Fungal DNA | ||||
Candida species Aspergillus (Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus) |
Candidiasis Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis, pulmonary and nasal allergies, asthma, pneumonitis |
Detected * (INF) | (Assress et al., 2019) | |
Parasites | ||||
Giardia lambli | Small intestine infections | 2,653– 13,408 cysts/litre (INF) | (Guy et al., 2003) | |
Cryptosporidium | Gastrointestinal illness | 1–120 oocysts/litre (INF) | (Wallis et al., 1996) | |
Biological response | mcr-1 | Colistin resistance | 8.11 × 101 cell equivalents/100 ng DNA (INF) | (Hembach et al., 2017) |
e.g. Antibiotic resistant genes | mecA | Methicillin resistance | 1x101- ∼5x104 genes/100 mL(INF) | (Börjesson et al., 2009) |
ermB | Erythromycin resistance | 105.2–107 copies/mL(INF) | (Wang et al., 2015) | |
sul1 | Sulphonamide resistance | 105.46–107.54 copies/mL(INF) | (Munir et al., 2011, Wang et al., 2015) | |
blaOXA-1 | Beta-lactam resistance | 105.4–107.3 copies/mL (INF) | (Wang et al., 2015) | |
tetW | Tetracycline resistance | 104.2–107.4 copies/mL (INF) | (Munir et al., 2011, Wang et al., 2015) |
INF: Influent wastewater (U): Urine. PFU: Plaque forming units (measure of number of infectious particles).UTI: Urinary tract infection *Via sequencing