Table 2.
Characteristics of studies included in the review
| Author, year | Country | Recruitment location | Study design | Study size | Eligible age group | Diagnoses of participants | Sample type | Laboratory methods | Microbe(s) | Prognostic outcome(s) reported | Clear swab ‘control’ group? | Results stratified by antibiotic use? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bamberger 2012 [21] | Israel | Inpatient | Prospective observational | 366 | <24 mo | Acute bronchiolitis | NPA | PCR | RSV | Duration of hospitalization: categories <3 d, 4–7 d, 7+d; mean PICU stay; supplemental oxygen duration <3 d: yes/no | No | No |
| Bennett 2007 [22] | USA | A&E | Prospective observational | 101 | <24 mo | Bronchiolitis | Nasal wash | Viral culture, monoclonal antibody, stain | RSV | Duration of illness: median; hospitalization: yes/no | Yes | No |
| Chan 2007 [23] | Hong Kong | Inpatient | Retrospective case review | 561 | ≤3 y | Acute respiratory infection | NPA | Assay and immunofluorescence | RSV and flu A and B (combined) | Duration of fever & duration of hospitalization: mean (SD), PICU admission y/n | No | No |
| Chiu 2010 [24] | Hong Kong | Inpatient | Prospective observational | 1031 | <18 y | Febrile upper respiratory tract infection | NPA | Immunofluorescence | RSV, PIV, Adv | Duration of hospitalization: mean (SD) | No | No |
| Cohen 2015 [25] | France and Turkey | Community clinic and A&E | Prospective observational | 774 | Any age | Laboratory-confirmed influenza A or B | Rhino-pharyngeal swab | RT-PCR | Flu A and B | Hospitalization: yes/no; illness duration split by age group: odds ratio | No | No |
| Foshaug 2015 [26] | Norway | Primary care | Retrospective case–control | 414 | Adult | ‘Airway infections’ | NPS | PCR | M. pneumoniae | Admission to hospital (yes/no) | Yes | No |
| Franz 2010 [27] | Germany | Inpatient | Prospective observational | 404 | 0–16 y | Lower respiratory tract infections | NPA | RT-PCR | RSV, RV, HBoV, adenoviruses | Duration of hospitalization: median | No | No |
| Garcia-Garcia 2017 [28] | Spain | Inpatient | Prospective observational | 3906 | <14 y | Acute respiratory tract infection | NPA | RT-PCR | HMPV, RSV, RV, HBoV, adeno | Duration of fever and duration of hospitalization: mean (SD) | No | No |
| Güllü 2017 [29] | Turkey | Inpatient | Prospective observational | 361 | <2 y | Viral lower RTI | NP swab | Rapid antigen detection test | RSV | Duration of hospitalization: mean and SD | Yes | No |
| Iwane 2011 [30] | USA | Inpatient | Prospective observational | 1867 | <5 y | Acute respiratory tract infection | NS and TS | RT-PCR | RV | Hospital stay >3 d: yes/no; duration of hospitalization: median (IQR) | No | No |
| Lambert 2007 [31] | Australia | Community clinic | Prospective observational | 234 | <5 y | Acute respiratory infection | Combined NS and TS | PCR | hMPV, coronavirus, picornaviruses (pooled), PIV, ADV, RSV, influenza A | Hospitalization: yes/no; ED presentation: yes/no; symptom duration: mean and median | Yes | No |
| Lau 2006 [32] | Hong Kong | Inpatient | Prospective observational | 4181 | Any age | ‘Respiratory tract infections’ | NPA | RT-PCR | HCoV, Flu A and B, Adv, parainfluenzaviruses, RSV, hMPV | Duration of fever and duration of hospitalization: mean and SD | No | No |
| Laundy 2003 [16] | UK | Primary care centre and A&E | Prospective observational | 51 | <5 y | Community-acquired pneumonia | NPA | Indirect immunofluorescence, PCR | RSV, influenza A | Duration of hospitalization, fever and illness duration: median, mean and range | No | No |
| Mansbach 2008 [33] | USA | A&E | Prospective observational | 277 | <2 y | Bronchiolitis | NPA | PCR | RSV, RV | Symptom duration: median, IQR; relapse within two weeks: yes/no; days of activity limitation post hospital visit: median (IQR) | No | No |
| Marguet 2009 [34] | France | Inpatient | Prospective observational | 209 | 1 mo–1 y | First episode acute bronchiolitis | NPA | RT-PCR | RSV, RV, hMPV | Duration of hospitalization: median (IQR) | Yes | No |
| Mullins 2011 [35] | USA | University health clinic | Prospective observational | 60 | Adult | Influenza-like illness | NPS | PCR | Influenza | Days off school/work: mean (CI) | Yes | No |
| Palomino 2004 [36] | Chile | Inpatient | Prospective observational | 117 | <2 y | Acute lower respiratory infection | NPA | Immunofluorescence | Adv | Duration of hospitalization: median | No | No |
| Resch 2011 [37] | Austria | Inpatient | Retrospective notes review | 425 | <12 m | Lower respiratory infection | NPA | ELISA, immunofluorescence | RSV and influenza | Duration of hospitalization: mean (SD); supplemental oxygen treatment duration | No | No |
| Shaikh 2014 [38] | USA | Outpatient | Prospective observational | 206 | 2–12 y | Acute sinusitis | NPS | Culture | S. pneumoniae, M. catarrhalis, H. influenzae | Days to symptom resolution: median | Yes | No |
| Tsolia 2003 [39] | Greece | Inpatient | Prospective observational and retrospective case review | 636 | <1 y | Bronchiolitis | NPW | Immunofluorescence | RSV | Duration of hospitalization: mean (SD); intensive care admission: yes/no | Yes | No |
| Tsung 2010 [40] | Hong Kong | Inpatient | Prospective observational | 475 | <5 y | Acute respiratory tract infections | NPS and NPA | Immunofluorescence, PCR | Adv, influenza A and B, PIV, RSV, hMPV, M. pneumoniae, RV, enterovirus | Duration of hospitalization: categories: <2 d, 3–4 d, >5 d, median (IQR) | No | No |
d, days; w, weeks; mo, months; y, years; NPA, nasopharyngeal aspirate; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; RT-PCR, reverse-transcriptase PCR; hMPV, human metapneumovirus; HBoV, human bocavirus; SD, standard deviation; IQR, interquartile range; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; RV, rhinovirus; NPS, nasopharyngeal swab; A&E, accident and emergency department; GP, general practice; NP, nasopharyngeal; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; HCoV, coronaviruses; Adv, adenovirus; PIV, parainfluenzavirus; NS, nasal swab; TS, throat swab; ED, emergency department; NPW, nasopharyngeal wash; PICU, paediatric intensive care unit.