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. 2020 Feb 1;27(11):12704–12716. doi: 10.1007/s11356-020-07801-9

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Scanning electron microscopy images (× 2000 magnification) of the surface of steel after 24 h of treatment (rinsed with ultrapure water). Treatments: ATW (artificial tap water), O₃ + ATW: 30 min ozone treatment followed by 23.5 h continued exposure in artificial tap water without ozone, Ca(ClO)₂ or NaClO treatments of 50, 150, or 250 mg/L active chlorine in artificial tap water for 24 h. Mass concentrations measured by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy are indicated for selected samples