Table 3.
Subgroup analyses of studies using different types of TM tools
| Outcome | TM tools | No. of trials | Pooled effect | Heterogeneity | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Effect size | 95% CI | P | I2 | P | |||
| Change in HbA1c | Health app or device | 4 | MD = -0.75 | (− 1.25, − 0.25) | < 0.01 | 95 | 0.01 |
| 6 | MD = -0.84 | (−1.46, − 0.22) | < 0.01 | 95 | < 0.01 | ||
| Change in FBG | Health app or device | 6 | MD = -0.05 | (−0.23, 0.12) | 0.54 | 16 | 0.31 |
| Web-based system | 5 | MD = -0.48 | (− 0.95, − 0.00) | 0.05 | 91 | < 0.01 | |
| 9 | MD = -0.85 | (−1.35, −0.35) | < 0.01 | 96 | < 0.01 | ||
| Change in 2hBG | Health app or device | 5 | MD = -0.50 | (−0.97, − 0.03) | 0.04 | 38 | 0.17 |
| 8 | MD = -1.26 | (−2.63, 0.11) | 0.07 | 98 | < 0.01 | ||
| Caesarean section | Health app or device | 6 | RR = 0.76 | (0.60, 0.97) | 0.03 | 33 | 0.19 |
| Web-based system | 3 | RR = 1.19 | (0.69, 2.06) | 0.54 | 67 | 0.05 | |
| 10 | RR = 0.82 | (0.60, 0.96) | 0.02 | 56 | 0.02 | ||
| PIH or preeclampsia | Health app or device | 3 | RR = 0.76 | (0.28, 2.09) | 0.60 | 35 | 0.22 |
| Web-based system | 3 | RR = 0.50 | (0.40, 0.62) | < 0.01 | 70 | 0.04 | |
| 6 | RR = 0.39 | (0.26, 0.61) | < 0.01 | 0 | 0.93 | ||
| Premature rupture of membranes | Web-based system | 3 | RR = 0.56 | (0.44, 0.71) | < 0.01 | 21 | 0.28 |
| 3 | RR = 0.80 | (0.53, 1.19) | 0.27 | 0 | 0.51 | ||
| Macrosomia | Health app or device | 4 | RR = 1.16 | (0.65, 2.06) | 0.62 | 27 | 0.25 |
| Web-based system | 3 | RR = 0.61 | (0.07, 5.58) | 0.66 | 81 | < 0.01 | |
| 11 | RR = 0.44 | (0.32, 0.59) | < 0.01 | 4 | 0.40 | ||
| Admission to the NICU | Health app or device | 3 | RR = 0.74 | (0.44, 1.24) | 0.25 | 14 | 0.32 |
| Web-based system | 3 | RR = 1.33 | (0.69, 2.59) | 0.40 | 46 | 0.16 | |
| Neonatal hypoglycaemia | Health app or device | 4 | RR = 1.25 | (0.81, 1.92) | 0.31 | 0 | 0.78 |
| 6 | RR = 0.40 | (0.28, 0.59) | < 0.01 | 0 | 0.86 | ||
| Preterm birth | Health app or device | 3 | RR = 0.40 | (0.17, 0.96) | 0.04 | 0 | 0.75 |
| Web-based system | 3 | RR = 0.22 | (0.15, 0.32) | < 0.01 | 84 | < 0.01 | |
| 7 | RR = 0.32 | (0.21, 0.48) | < 0.01 | 0 | 0.66 | ||
| Neonatal asphyxia | 4 | RR = 0.17 | (0.08, 0.33) | < 0.01 | 0 | 0.88 | |
| Polyhydramnios | 5 | RR = 0.17 | (0.08, 0.35) | < 0.01 | 0 | 0.99 | |
GDM Gestational diabetes mellitus, HbA1c glycated haemoglobin, 2hBG 2-h postprandial blood glucose, FBG fasting blood glucose, PIH pregnancy-induced hypertension, NICU neonatal intensive care unit, RR relative risk, CI confidence interval, MD mean difference, TM telemedicine