Fig. 3.

Summary of pre-clinical studies for the repair and regeneration of musculoskeletal tissues and wound healing [24,35,102,150,151]. Most of the ES studies rely on signal transduction from dermis nerves to applied skin electrodes for stimulation and measurement. Several studies report use of standard percutaneous ES using 10 mm diameter Silver/Silver Chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrodes (3 M Company) to enable ES. The cathode is placed over the implanted graft and the anode is placed over the connective tissue.