Table 1.
Summary of the different types of NPs described in the text.
| Nanoparticle Systems | Nanoparticle Composition | Mechanism of Action | Model Used for Validation | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ROS Modulators | ||||
| CeO-NPs | Cerium oxide | ROS scavenging or generation depending on pH | In vitro cell lines and xenograft animal model | [19,20,21,22,23] |
| SPIONs | Super-paramagnetic iron oxide | Generation of O2•− by the ETC through the release of iron ions | SG-7701, Raw264.7, NIH3T3, HUVEC and HK2 normal cells; N2a, GY7703, HepG2, CNE1 and CNE2 cancer cells | [25] |
| MnO2-NPs | Manganese oxide | Impairment of the ETC and increased ROS production | Evaluation of pharmacokinetics and toxicity of NPs in C57 mice organs | [26] |
| IOMNPs | Magnetic iron oxide | Activation of NADPH oxidases and generation of O2•− | Several human cancer cell lines and in vivo animal models | [28] |
| As-NPs | Arsenic | Inhibition of complex I and II of the ETC | MDA-MB-231, MCF-7 (human breast cancer) cell lines in vitro; isolated rat liver mitochondria | [29,30] |
| Carbon-NPs | Fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanodots | Transition metal-catalyzed generation of ROS and activation of NADPH oxidases and TLRs in professional phagocytes | Human hepatoma (H22) murine model; human pancreatic tumor xenografts mice; U937 (human myeloid lineage cells), nonsensitized human peripheral blood phagocytes | [32,34,35] |
| PDT Mediators | ||||
| Ce6 | Cerium 6 activated by LED-equipped microdevice | Wireless-activated infrared irradiation | Bladder cancer mouse xenograft and adult pig | [43] |
| GQNs | Graphene quantum nanodots | Generation of singlet oxygen and heat upon irradiation with 670 nm photons | MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, breast cancer xenograft mouse model | [45,46] |
| Redox-Based Delivery Systems | ||||
| SWCNTs | Carbon nanotubes + hyaluronic acid + doxorubicin | Release of doxorubicin in the presence of high levels of hyaluronidase and glutathione | MCF-7 (human breast cancer cells), breast cancer xenograft mouse model | [51] |
| BSA-NPs | Bovine serum albumin + doxorubicin + cyclopamine | Release of doxorubicin and decreased expression of ABC proteins | MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 (breast cancer cells) in vitro, breast cancer xenograft mouse model | [56] |
| MSNPs | Mesoporous silica + doxorubicin + Sgc8 aptamer | Specific release of doxorubicin in T-ALL cells after PTK-7 binding | CEM (T-ALL), Ramos (Burkitt lymphoma), Lo2 (normal liver), 293T (human embryonic kidney) cell lines in vitro | [57] |
| Pt-NPs | Water-soluble platinum NPs capped with polyvinyl alcohol | Release of Pt2+ ions at low endosomal pH | Human glioblastoma U251 cell line | [59] |
| TNO3 | d-α-tocopheryl/polyethylene glycol succinate micelles + doxorubicin | Release of NO in the presence of high levels of glutathione and synergistic anticancer effect with doxorubicin | Hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vivo | [64] |
| NO-NPs | Hydrophilic polyethylene glycol + hydrophobic nitrated dextran | Boosted EPR effect by releasing NO upon reduction by glutathione | In vitro release of NO in the presence of glutathione, HT29 human colon carcinoma cell line in vitro, HT29 tumor-bearing mice | [67] |
| NONOate-loaded liposomes | Liposomes + zwitterionic diazeniumdiolate | Release of NO in tumor microenvironment due to low pH | Acellular system with controlled pH | [69] |
| Mesoporous organosilica NPs | Mesoporous organosilica + glucose oxidase + l-arginine | Release of high amount of NO in the presence of glucose and consequent glucose starvation of cancer cells | U87MG mouse xenograft model | [70] |
NPs: nanoparticles; CeO-NPs: cerium oxide NPs; SPIONs: super-paramagnetic iron oxide NPs; MnO2-NPs: manganese oxide NPs; IOMNPs: iron oxide magnetic NPs; As-NPs: arsenic NPs; Carbon-NPs: carbon-based NPs; Ce6: cerium oxide NPs under the size of 6 nm; GQNs: graphene quantum nanodots; SWCNTs: single-walled carbon nanotubes; BSA-NPs: bovine serum albumin NPs; MSNPs: mesoporous silica NPs; Pt-NPs: platinum NPs; TNO3: d-α-tocopheryl/polyethylene glycol succinate micelles; NO-NPs: nitric oxide-releasing NPs; ETC: electron transport chain; NADPH: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; TLRs: Toll-like receptors; ABC: ATP-binding cassette; T-ALL: T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia; PTK-7: protein tyrosine kinase-7; EPR: enhanced permeability and retention effect.