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Schematic diagram of Toll-like receptor (TLRs) signaling pathways. TLRs are expressed in neurons, microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and neural stem cells. LPS, lipopolysaccharide; LRR, leucine-rich repeat; dsDNA, double-stranded DNA; dsRNA, double-stranded RNA; ssRNA, single-stranded RNA; TIR, toll/IL1 receptor; IRF, interferon regulatory factor; MyD88, myeloid differentiation primary response 88; TRIF, TIR-domain-containing adapter inducing IFN-β; IFN, interferon
