Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies.
| Study | N | Country | Intervention 1 | Intervention 2 | Intervention 3 | Intervention 4 | Population | Trauma type | % Female | % Unemployed | % University Educated |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acarturk et al. (2016) | 98 | Turkey/Syria | EMDR | WL | Refugees | War/Persecution | 74 | Unknown | 4 | ||
| Adenauer et al. (2011) | 34 | Germany | NET (CBT-T) | WL | Refugees | War/Persecution | 44 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| Ahmadi, Hazrati, Ahmadizadeh and Noohi (2015) | 48 | Iran | EMDR | REM Desensitization | WL | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 0 | Unknown | 33.3 | |
| Akbarian et al. (2015) | 40 | Iran | Group CBT-T | MC/RA | General Population | Various | 79 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| Asukai, Saito, Tsuruta, Kishimoto and Nishikawa (2010) | 24 | Japan | PE (CBT-T) | TAU | General Population | Various | 88 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| Beck, Coffey, Foy, Keane, & Blanchard (2009) | 44 | USA | Group CBT-T | MC/RA | General Population | Road Traffic Accident | 82 | 54 | Unknown | ||
| Bichescu, Neuner, Schauer and Elbert (2007) | 18 | Romania | NET (CBT-T) | Psychoeducation | General Population | Political detainment | 94 | 0 | 72 | ||
| Blanchard et al. (2003) | 98 | USA | CBT-T | SC | WL | General Population | Road Traffic Accident | 73 | Unknown | Unknown | |
| Bradshaw, McDonald, Grace, Detwiler and Austin (2014) | 10 | Canada | OEI | WL | General Population | Various | 70 | 0 | Unknown | ||
| Brom, Kleber and Defares (1989) | 83 | Netherlands | CBT-T | Psychodynamic Therapy | WL | General Population | Various | 79 | 49 | Unknown | |
| Bryant, Moulds, Guthrie, Dang and Nixon (2003) | 58 | Australia | CBT-T | SC | General Population | Various | 52 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Bryant et al., 2011) | 28 | Thailand | CBT-T | SC | General Population | Terrorism | 96 | 84% | Unknown | ||
| (Buhmann, Nordentoft, Ekstroem, Carlsson, & Mortensen, 2016) | 138 | Denmark | CBT-T | WL | Refugees | Organized Violence | 41 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Butollo, Karl, König, & Rosner, 2016) | 148 | Germany | CPT (CBT-T) | DET | General Population | Various | 66 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Capezzani et al., 2013) | 21 | Italy | EMDR | CBT-T | General Population | Medical Diagnoses/Emergencies | 90 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Carletto et al., 2016) | 50 | Italy | EMDR | Relaxation Training | General Population | Medical Diagnoses/Emergencies | 81 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Carlson, Chemtob, Rusnak, Hedlund, & Muraoka, 1998) | 35 | USA | EMDR | Relaxation Training | TAU | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 0 | 62 | Unknown | |
| (Castillo et al., 2016) | 86 | USA | Group CBT-T | WL | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 100 | 44 | Unknown | ||
| (Chard, 2005) | 71 | USA | CPT (CBT-T) | WL | General Population | Sexual Assault or Rape | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Cloitre, Koenen, Cohen, & Han, 2002b) | 58 | USA | CBT-T | WL | General Population | Child Abuse | 100 | 24 | 52 | ||
| (Cloitre et al., 2010) | 71 | USA | CBT-T | CBT without a trauma focus | General Population | Child Abuse | 100 | 31 | Unknown | ||
| Cooper (1989) | 16 | USA | EMDR | Relaxation Therapy | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 0 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Devilly, Spence, & Rapee, 1998) | 35 | Australia | EMDR | TAU | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 0 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Devilly & Spence, 1999) | 32 | Australia | EMDR | CBT-T | General Population | Various | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Dorrepaal et al., 2012) | 71 | Netherlands | Group Stabilizing Treatment | TAU | General Population | Child Abuse | Unknown | 83 | Unknown | ||
| (Duffy, Gillespie, & Clark, 2007) | 58 | UK | CT (CBT-T) | WL | General Population | Various | 40 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Dunne, Kenardy, & Sterling, 2012) | 26 | Australia | CBT-T | WL | General Population | Road Traffic Accident | 50 | 31 | 73 | ||
| (Echeburua, Zubizarreta, & Sarasua, 1997) | 20 | Spain | CBT-T | Relaxation Training | General Population | Sexual Assault or Rape | 100 | Unknown | 20 | ||
| (Ehlers, Clark, Hackmann, McManus, & Fennell, 2005) | 28 | UK | CT (CBT-T) | WL | General Population | Various | 50 | 25 | 35 | ||
| (Ehlers et al., 2003) | 57 | UK | CT (CBT-T) | MC/RA | General Population | Road Traffic Accident | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Ehlers et al., 2014) | 91 | UK | CT (CBT-T) | SC | WL | General Population | Various | 58 | 23 | 26 | |
| (Falsetti, Resnick, & Davis, 2008) | 60 | USA | Group CBT-T | WL | General Population | Various | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Fecteau & Nicki, 1999) | 20 | Canada | CBT-T | WL | General Population | Road Traffic Accident | 70 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Feske, 2008) | 21 | USA | PE (CBT-T) | TAU | General Population | Various | 100 | 29% | 90% | ||
| (Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, & Murdock, 1991) | 45 | USA | PE (CBT-T) | CBT without a trauma focus | Supportive counselling | WL | General Population | Sexual Assault or Rape | 100 | Unknown | Unknown |
| (Foa et al., 1999) | 66 | USA | PE (CBT-T) | CBT without a trauma focus | WL | General Population | Sexual Assault or Rape | 100 | 38 | 41 | |
| (Foa et al., 2005) | 179 | USA | PE (CBT-T) | WL | General Population | Assault | 100 | 17 | 34 | ||
| (Foa et al., 2018) | 256 | USA | Spaced PE (CBT-T) | PCT | MC/RA | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 12 | 100 | 66 | |
| (Fonzo et al., 2017) | 66 | USA | PE (CBT-T) | WL | General Population | Various | 65 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Forbes et al., 2012) | 59 | Australia | CPT (CBT-T) | TAU | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 4 | 36 | Unknown | ||
| (Ford, Steinberg, & Zhang, 2011) | 146 | USA | CBT without a trauma focus | PCT | WL | General Population | Various | 100 | Unknown | 22 | |
| (Ford, Chang, Levine, & Zhang, 2013) | 80 | USA | Group CBT-T | Group Supportive Counselling | Incarcerated Women | Various | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Galovski, Blain, Mott, Elwood, & Houle, 2012) | 100 | USA | CPT (CBT-T) | MC/RA | General Population | Various | 69 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Gamito et al., 2010) | 10 | Portugal | VRE (CBT-T) | Control Exposure | WL | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 0 | Unknown | Unknown | |
| (Gersons, Carlier, Lamberts, & Van der Kolk, 2000) | 42 | Netherlands | BEP (CBT-T) | WL | General Population | Various | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Gray, Budden-Potts, & Bourke, 2017) | 74 | USA | RTM (CBT-T) | WL | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 0 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Hensel-Dittmann et al., 2011) | 28 | Germany | NET (CBT-T) | CBT without a trauma focus | Asylum Seekers | Organized Violence | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Hinton et al., 2005) | 40 | USA | CBT-T | WL | Refugees | Genocide | 60 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Hinton, Hofmann, Rivera, Otto, & Pollack, 2011) | 24 | USA | Group CBT-T | WL | General Population | Various | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Hogberg et al., 2007) | 24 | Sweden | EMDR | WL | General Population | Various | 38 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Hollifield, Sinclair-Lian, Warner, & Hammerschlag, 2007) | 55 | USA | Group trauma-focused CBT | WL | General Population | Various | 68 | Unknown | 40 | ||
| (Ironson, Freund, Strauss, & Williams, 2002) | 22 | USA | EMDR | PE (CBT-T) | General Population | Various | 77 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Ivarsson et al., 2014) | 62 | Sweden | I-CBT | WL | General Population | Various | 82 | 8 | 65 | ||
| (Jacob, Neuner, Maedl, Schaal, & Elbert, 2014) | 76 | Rwanda | NET (CBT-T) | WL | Genocide Survivors | Genocide | 92 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Jensen, 1994) | 25 | USA | EMDR | WL | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 0 | 68 | Unknown | ||
| (Johnson, Zlotnick, & Perez, 2011) | 70 | USA | CBT without a trauma focus | TAU | General Population | Domestic Abuse | 100 | 73 | 7 | ||
| (Johnson, Johnson, Perez, Palmieri, & Zlotnick, 2016) | 60 | USA | CBT without a trauma focus | TAU | General Population | Domestic Abuse | 100 | 77 | 5 | ||
| (Karatzias et al., 2011) | 46 | UK | EMDR | EFT | General Population | Various | 57 | 37 | 47 | ||
| (Keane, Fairbank, Caddell, & Zimering, 1989) | 24 | USA | CBT-T | WL | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 0 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Krupnick et al., 2008) | 48 | USA | Group IPT | WL | General Population | Various | 100 | 80 | 13% | ||
| (Kubany, Hill, & Owens, 2003) | 37 | USA | CBT-T | WL | General Population | Domestic Abuse | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Kubany, Hill, & Owens, 2004) | 107 | USA | CBT-T | WL | General Population | Domestic Abuse | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Laugharne et al., 2016) | 20 | Australia | EMDR | PE (CBT-T) | General Population | Various | 70 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Lee, Gavriel, Drummond, Richards, & Greenwald, 2002) | 24 | Australia | CBT-T | EMDR | General Population | Various | 46 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Lewis et al., 2017) | 42 | UK | I-CBT | WL | General Population | Various | 57 | 19 | 62 | ||
| Lindauer | 24 | Netherlands | BEP | WL | General Population | Various | 54 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| Littleton (2016) (Littleton, Grills, Kline, Schoemann, & Dodd, 2016) | 87 | USA | I-CBT | I-Psychoeducation | General Population | Sexual Assault or Rape | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Litz, Engel, Bryant, & Papa, 2007) | 45 | USA | I-CBT | I-SC | Military Personnel/Veterans | Terrorism/Military Trauma | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Marcus, Marquis, & Sakai, 1997) | 67 | USA | EMDR | TAU | General Population | Various | 79 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Markowitz et al., 2015) | 110 | USA | IPT | PE (CBT-T) | Relaxation Therapy | General Population | Various | 70 | 21 | Unknown | |
| (Marks, Lovell, Noshirvani, Livanou, & Thrasher, 1998) | 87 | UK | PE (CBT-T) | Cognitive Restructuring | PE (CBT-T) (CBT-T)(CBT-T)and Cognitive Restructuring | Relaxation without PE (CBT-T) (CBT-T)(CBT-T)or CR | General Population | Various | 36 | 54 | Unknown |
| (McDonagh et al., 2005) | 74 | USA | PE (CBT-T) | PCT | WL | General Population | Sexual Assault or Rape | 100 | 17 | Unknown | |
| (McLay et al., 2011) | 20 | USA | VRE (CBT-T) | TAU | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 5 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (McLay et al., 2017) | 81 | USA | VRE (CBT-T) | Control Exposure Therapy | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 4 | Unclear | Unclear | ||
| (Monson et al., 2012) | 20 | USA | Couples CBT-T | WL | General Population | Various | 25 | 40 | Unknown | ||
| (Monson et al., 2006) | 60 | USA | CPT (CBT-T) | WL | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 10 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Morath et al., 2014) | 38 | Germany | NET (CBT-T) | WL | Refugees | Organized Violoence | 32 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Mueser et al., 2008) | 108 | USA | CBT-T | TAU | General Population | Various | 79 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Nacasch et al., 2011) | 30 | Israel | PE (CBT-T) | TAU | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | Unknown | 63 | Unknown | ||
| (Neuner et al., 2010) | 32 | Germany | NET (CBT-T) | TAU | Refugees | Torture | 31 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Neuner et al., 2008) | 277 | Uganda | NET (CBT-T) | SC | Monitoring | Refugees | War/Persecution | 51 | 49 | Unknown | |
| (Neuner, Schauer, Klaschik, Karunakara, & Elbert, 2004) | 43 | Uganda | NET (CBT-T) | SC | Psychoeducation | Refugees | War/Persecution | 60 | 28 | Unknown | |
| (Nijdam, Gersons, Reitsma, de Jongh, & Olff, 2012) | 140 | Netherlands | BEP (CBT-T) | EMDR | General Population | Various | 56 | Unknown | 30 | ||
| (Pacella et al., 2012) | 66 | USA | PE (CBT-T) (CBT-T) | MC/RA | General Population | Medical Diagnoses/Emergencies | 37 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Paunovic, 2011) | 29 | Sweden | CBT-T | WL | General Population | Various | 63 | 74 | 11 | ||
| (Peniston & Kulkosky, 1991) | 29 | USA | CBT-T | TAU | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Power et al., 2002) | 105 | UK | EMDR | CBT-T | WL | General Population | Various | 42 | Unknown | Unknown | |
| (Rauch et al., 2015) | 36 | USA | PE (CBT-T) (CBT-T) | PCT | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 9 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Ready, Gerardi, Backscheider, Mascaro, & Rothbaum, 2010) | 11 | USA | VRE (CBT-T) | PCT | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Reger et al., 2016) | 162 | USA | VRE (CBT-T) | PE (CBT-T) | WL | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 4 | Active duty | 7 | |
| (Resick et al., 2015) | 108 | USA | Group CBT-T | Group PCT | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 8 | 0 | 8 | ||
| (Resick et al., 2002) | 171 | USA | CPT (CBT-T) (CBT-T) | PE (CBT-T) | Minimal Attention | General Population | Sexual Assault or Rape | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | |
| (Resick et al., 2017) | 268 | USA | CPT (CBT-T) (CBT-T) | Group CBT-T | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 9 | 100 | 19 | ||
| (Rothbaum, 1997) | 18 | USA | EMDR | WL | General Population | Sexual Assault or Rape | 100 | 19 | 43 | ||
| (Rothbaum, Astin, & Marsteller, 2005) | 60 | USA | PE (CBT-T) | EMDR | WL | General Population | Sexual Assault or Rape | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | |
| (Sautter, Glynn, Cretu, Senturk, & Vaught, 2015) | 57 | USA | Couples CBT without a trauma focus | Couples Psychoeducation | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 1.75 | 12 | 75 | ||
| (Scheck, Schaeffer, & Gillette, 1998) | 60 | USA | EMDR | SC | General Population | Various | 100 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Schnurr et al., 2003) | 360 | USA | Group CBT-T | Group PCT | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 0 | 51 | Unknown | ||
| (Schnurr et al., 2007) | 284 | USA | PE (CBT-T) (CBT-T) | Group PCT | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | 100 | 38 | Unknown | ||
| (Schnyder, Müller, Maercker, & Wittmann, 2011) | 30 | Switzerland | BEP (CBT-T) | MC/RA | General Population | Various | 46.7 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| Shemesh | 60 | USA | CBT-T | Psychoeducation | General Population | Medical Diagnoses/Emergencies | 33 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Sloan, Marx, Bovin, Feinstein, & Gallagher, 2012) | 46 | USA | WET | WL | General Population | Road Traffic Accident | Unclear | 78 | 41 | ||
| (Sloan, Marx, Lee, & Resick, 2018) | 126 | USA | WET | CPT (CBT-T) | General Population | Various | 49 | Unknown | 13 | ||
| (Spence et al., 2011) | 42 | Australia | I-CBT | WL | General Population | Various | 81 | 41 | Not clear | ||
| (Stenmark, Catani, Neuner, Elbert, & Holen, 2013) | 81 | Norway | NET (CBT-T) | TAU | Refugees | Various | 31 | Unknown | 25 | ||
| (Suris, Link-Malcolm, Chard, Ahn, & North, 2013) | 86 | USA | CPT (CBT-T) | PCT | Military Personnel/Veterans | Sexual Assault or Rape | 85 | 43 | 16 | ||
| (Taylor et al., 2003) | 60 | USA | PE (CBT-T) | Relaxation Therapy | EMDR | General Population | Various | 75 | 13 | Unknown | |
| (Tylee, Gray, Glatt, & Bourke, 2017) | 30 | USA | RTM (CBT-T) | WL | General Population | Military Trauma | 0 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Vaughan et al., 1994) | 36 | Australia | CBT-T | Relaxation Training | EMDR | General Population | Various | 64 | Unknown | Unknown | |
| (Wells et al., 2015) | 32 | UK | PE (CBT-T) | CBT without a trauma focus | WL | General Population | Various | 38 | 6 | Unknown | |
| (Wells & Sembi, 2012) | 20 | UK | CBT without a trauma focus | WL | General Population | Various | 55 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Yehuda et al., 2014) | 52 | USA | PE (CBT-T) | MC/RA | Military Personnel/Veterans | Military Trauma | Unclear | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Zang, Hunt, & Cox, 2014) | 20 | China | NET (CBT-T) | WL | General Population | Earthquake | 90 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Zang, Hunt, & Cox, 2013) | 22 | China | NET (CBT-T) | WL | General Population | Earthquake | 77 | Unknown | Unknown | ||
| (Zlotnick et al., 1997) | 48 | USA | Group CBT-T | WL | General Population | Sexual Assault or Rape | 100 | Unknown | 33 |
BEP =Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy; NET = Narrative Exposure Therapy
CBT =Cognitive Behavioural Therapy; OEI =Observed and Experimental Integration
CBT-T =Cognitive Behavioural Therapy with a Trauma focus; PCT =Present Centred Therapy
CPT =Cognitive Processing Therapy; PE =Prolonged Exposure
CR =Cognitive Restructuring; REM Desensitization =Rapid Eye Movement Desensitization
CT =Cognitive Therapy; RTM =Reconsolidation of Traumatic Memories
DET =Dialogical Exposure Therapy; SC =Supportive Counselling
EFT =Emotional Freedom Technique; TAU =Treatment as Usual
EMDR = Eye Movement Desensitization and ReprocessingVRE =Virtual Reality Exposure
I-CBT = Internet-based Cognitive Behavioural Therapy; WET = Written Emotion Therapy
I-Psychoeducation =Internet-based Psychoeducation; WL =Waiting List
IPT =Interpersonal Psychotherapy
I-SC =Internet-based Supportive Counselling
MC/RA =Medical Checks/Repeated Assessments