Table 1.
Characteristics of the study population, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011–2014 (N = 2513)
| CERAD Test | Animal Fluency Test | Digit Symbol Test | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number of Subjects (N) | Normal Cognitive Performance | Low Cognitive Performance | p Value | Normal Cognitive Performance | Low Cognitive Performance | p Value | Normal Cognitive Performance | Low Cognitive Performance | p Value | |
| Number of subjects (%) 1 | 1800(71.6) | 713(28.4) | 1789(71.2) | 724(28.8) | 1857(73.9) | 656(26.1) | ||||
| Age (%) 1 | 2513 | 0.336 | 0.016 | 0.920 | ||||||
| 60–70 years | 959(53.3) | 403(56.5) | 961(53.7) | 401(55.4) | 1009(54.3) | 353(53.8) | ||||
| 70–80 years | 546(30.3) | 200(28.1) | 557(31.1) | 189(26.1) | 552(29.7) | 194(29.6) | ||||
| ≥80 years | 295(16.4) | 110(15.4) | 271(15.1) | 134(18.5) | 296(15.9) | 109(16.6) | ||||
| Gender (%) 1 | 2513 | <0.01 | 0.741 | <0.01 | ||||||
| Male | 782(43.4) | 432(60.6) | 868(48.5) | 346(47.8) | 843(45.4) | 371(56.6) | ||||
| Female | 1018(56.6) | 281(39.4) | 921(51.5) | 378(52.2) | 1014(54.6) | 285(43.4) | ||||
| Race (%) 1 | 2513 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 | ||||||
| Mexican American | 129(7.2) | 82(11.5) | 149(8.3) | 62(8.6) | 120(6.5) | 91(13.9) | ||||
| Other Hispanic | 143(7.9) | 101(14.2) | 151(8.4) | 93(12.8) | 120(6.5) | 124(18.9) | ||||
| Non-Hispanic White | 985(54.7) | 279(39.1) | 1031(57.6) | 233(32.2) | 1093(58.9) | 171(26.1) | ||||
| Non-Hispanic Black | 384(21.3) | 204(28.6) | 333(18.6) | 255(35.2) | 342(18.4) | 246(37.5) | ||||
| Other race | 159(8.8) | 47(6.6) | 125(7.0) | 81(11.2) | 182(9.8) | 24(3.7) | ||||
| Educational level (%) 1 | 2511 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 | ||||||
| Below high school | 320(17.8) | 277(38.9) | 329(18.4) | 268(37.1) | 244(13.1) | 353(54.0) | ||||
| High school | 423(23.5) | 174(24.4) | 405(22.6) | 192(26.6) | 441(23.7) | 156(23.9) | ||||
| Above high school | 1056(58.7) | 261(36.7) | 1055(59.0) | 262(36.3) | 1172(63.1) | 145(22.2) | ||||
| Material status (%) 1 | 2510 | 0.889 | 0.032 | <0.01 | ||||||
| Married/living with partner | 1056(58.7) | 416(58.4) | 1072(60.0) | 400(55.3) | 1144(61.7) | 328(50.1) | ||||
| Widowed/divorced/separated/never married | 742(41.3) | 296(41.6) | 715(40.0) | 323(44.7) | 711(38.3) | 327(49.9) | ||||
| Poverty–income ratio (%) 1 | 2324 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 | ||||||
| ≤0.99 | 224(13.4) | 144(22.0) | 217(13.0) | 151(22.9) | 185(10.7) | 183(30.6) | ||||
| ≥1 | 1445(86.6) | 511(78.0) | 1449(87.0) | 507(77.1) | 1540(89.3) | 416(69.4) | ||||
| Body mass index (%) 1 | 2483 | 0.055 | 0.638 | 0.498 | ||||||
| < 25 kg/m2 | 460(25.9) | 200(28.3) | 464(26.1) | 196 (27.7) | 487(26.4) | 173(27.2) | ||||
| 25-30 kg/m2 | 603(33.9) | 259(36.7) | 625(35.2) | 237(33.5) | 653(35.4) | 209(32.8) | ||||
| ≥30 kg/m2 | 714(40.2) | 247(35.0) | 686(38.6) | 275(38.8) | 706(38.2) | 255(40.0) | ||||
| Smoking status (%) 1 | 2510 | 0.003 | 0.018 | <0.01 | ||||||
| Never | 904(50.3) | 339(47.5) | 874(48.9) | 369(51.0) | 927(49.9) | 316(48.2) | ||||
| Former | 708(39.4) | 265(37.2) | 719(40.2) | 254(35.0) | 743(40.0) | 230(35.1) | ||||
| Current | 187(10.3) | 109(15.3) | 195(10.9) | 101(14.0) | 186(10.1) | 110(16.7) | ||||
| Hypertension (%) 1 | 2510 | 1123(62.4) | 445(62.6) | 0.939 | 1077(60.3) | 491(67.9) | <0.01 | 1119(60.4) | 449(68.4) | <0.01 |
| Diabetes (%) 1 | 2511 | 392(21.8) | 197(27.6) | 0.002 | 377(21.1) | 212(29.3) | <0.01 | 373(20.1) | 216(33.0) | <0.01 |
| Had at least 12 alcohol drinks/year (%) 1 | 2495 | 1237(69.0) | 491(69.9) | 0.643 | 1270(71.4) | 458(64.0) | <0.01 | 1322(71.5) | 406(62.8) | <0.01 |
| Ever told you had a stroke (%) 1 | 2508 | 107(6.0) | 59(8.3) | 0.036 | 100(5.6) | 66(9.1) | 0.001 | 91(4.9) | 75(11.4) | <0.01 |
| Coffee intake (g/day) 2 | 2513 | 255.77(499.25) | 228.9(442.5) | 0.017 | 273.8(510) | 212.8(397.5) | <0.01 | 277.5(510) | 208.43(393.2) | <0.01 |
| Caffeinated coffee intake (g/day) 2 | 2513 | 240(472.5) | 211(429.1) | 0.025 | 247.5(480) | 195.5(363.5) | <0.01 | 251.6(480) | 192.4(370.975) | <0.01 |
| Decaffeinated coffee intake (g/day) 2 | 2513 | 74.1(221) | 63(180.6) | 0.919 | 71.1(207) | 70.4(218) | 0.327 | 71.7(208) | 68.7(219) | 0.412 |
| Caffeine intake from coffee (mg/day) 2 | 1803 | 131.75 (213.03) | 107 (135) | 0.003 | 140 (149.5) | 99 (129.75) | <0.01 | 140 (147.5) | 95 (126.875) | <0.01 |
| Total energy intake (kcal/day) 2 | 2513 | 1754(816.25) | 1647.5(909.5) | <0.01 | 1796(838) | 1583.5(837) | <0.01 | 1796(815.5) | 1560.25(894) | <0.01 |
Data is number of subjects (percentage) or medians (interquartile ranges); 1 Chi-square test was used to compare the percentage between participants with and without low cognitive performance; 2 Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the median values between participants with and without low cognitive performance.