. 2020 Mar 18;12(3):806. doi: 10.3390/nu12030806

Table 1.

Metabolomic biomarkers risk factors of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and related diseases by NMR approaches.

Biomarker	Level	Biofluid	Risk factor	Metabolic pathway	Pre-clinical evidences	Clinical evidences
Glucose	Increased	Serum, urine	Carbohydrate disruption	Glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, pyruvate metabolism	[25,26]	[19,27,28]
Lactate	Increased	Serum, urine	Carbohydrate disruption	Gluconeogenesis, Pyruvate metabolism	[29,30]	[27,31,32]
Lactate	Increased	Urine	Gut microbiota metabolism	Gluconeogenesis, Pyruvate metabolism		[33]
Uric acid	Increased	Serum, urine, and renal extracts	Carbohydrate disruption	Purine metabolism	[34,35]	[36]
Propionylcarnitine	Increased	Plasma	Carbohydrate disruption	Lipid metabolism	-	[37,38,39,40]
Leucine (BCAA)	Increased	Serum/plasma, urine	Carbohydrate disruption	Amino acid metabolism	[25,26]	[32,41,42,43]
Isoleucine (BCAA)	Increased	Serum/plasma, urine	Carbohydrate disruption	Amino acid metabolism	[25,26]	[32,41,42,43,44]
Valine (BCAA)	Increased	Serum/plasma, urine	Carbohydrate disruption	Amino acid metabolism	[25,26]	[32,41,42,43,45,46]
Phenylalanine (AAA)	Increased	Serum/plasma, urine	Carbohydrate disruption	Amino acid metabolism	[25,26]	[32,41,42,43,47]
Tyrosine (AAA)	Increased	Serum/plasma, urine	Carbohydrate disruption	Amino acid metabolism	[25,26]	[32,41,42,43,44,48]
Glutamate	Increased	Serum	Carbohydrate disruption	Amino acid metabolism	[49]	[39,50,51]
Glutamine	Decreased	Serum, urine	Carbohydrate disruption	Amino acid metabolism	[30]	[39,50]
Citrate	Increased/decreased	Serum	Carbohydrate disruption	Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle	[29,52]	[53]
TMAO	Increased	Plasma/Urine	Gut microbiota metabolism	Choline metabolism	[54]	[55,56]
Acetate	Increased	Plasma	Gut microbiota metabolism	Pyruvate metabolism	[57]	[58]
TMA	Increased/Decreased	Plasma/Urine	Gut microbiota metabolism	Choline metabolism	[59,60,61]	-
DMA	Increased/Decreased	Plasma/Urine	Gut microbiota metabolism	Choline metabolism	[59,62]	[27]
Succinate	Increased	Plasma	Gut microbiota metabolism	Succinate metabolism	[63]	[64]
NAG	Increased	Plasma/Serum	Inflammation pathway	Protein Glycosilation	-	[65,66,67]
LPCs	Increased	Plasma/Serum	Inflammation pathway	Phospholipid hydrolysis	-	[68]
SFA, MUFAs PUFAs: DHA, EPA/ ALA, AA	Decreased/Increased	Urine/Serum	Inflammation pathway	Lipid metabolism	[69]	-
SFA, MUFAs PUFAs: DHA, EPA/ ALA, AA	Decreased/Increased	Serum	Dyslipidemia	Lipid metabolism	[70]	[43]
3-hydroxybutirate	Increased	Urine/plasma	Dyslipidemia	Ketogenesis	[71]	[72]
Choline	Decreased	Serum	Dyslipidemia	Choline metabolism	[73,74]	[27]
Allantoin	Increased	Urine	Oxidative stress	Purine metabolism	[26,75,76,77]	-
Pseudouridine	Increased	Urine	Oxidative stress	Nucleic acid metabolism	-	[78,79,80]
Glycine	Decreased	Plasma/Serum	Oxidative stress	1C metabolism	-	[81,82]
Serine	Decreased	Plasma/Serum	Oxidative stress	1C metabolism	-	[81,82]

Branched chain aminoacids (BCAAs); aromatic aminoacids (AAAs); trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO); trimethylamine (TMA); dimethylamine (DMA); lysophospholipids (LPCs); N-acetylglycoproteins (NAG); saturated fatty acids (SFA); monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs); polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs); eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA); docosahexaenoic acid (DHA); arachidonic acid (ARA); arachidonic acid (AA).